Book Three

that which is contained in the heavens, will come even to those things which are unseen, or to those whose names alone we have now heard, and to invisible things: which the Apostle Paul taught to be many, but what they are, or what difference they may have, we cannot conjecture with even the slightest degree of understanding. And thus ^A growing, the rational nature 1, not as in flesh or body and soul in this life did it grow, but increased by mind and sense to perfect knowledge, the mind now led to perfection, no longer hindered by these carnal senses, but increased by intellectual growth, always seeing toward the pure, and, if I may so speak, face to face the causes of things, it possesses perfect ^B action: first that by which it ascends to this, second that by which it remains, having as food upon which it may feed, the theorems and intellect of things and the reasons of causes. For just as in this life our bodies in the first instance grow into this very thing which we are, bodily, in the first age the sufficiency of food providing us with an increase; but afterwards when the height of growing to the measure of its own self has been fulfilled, we use foods no longer that we might grow, but that we might live and be preserved in life through sustenance: so I think that the mind also, when it has come to the perfect, feeds nevertheless and uses its own proper and fitting foods in that measure, to which there ought to be neither lack of anything, nor abundance. In all things, however, this food is to be understood as the theory and intellect of God, having proper and fitting measures for this nature which has been made and created; which measures it is fitting for each and every one—beginning to see God, that is to understand through purity of heart—to observe.

BOOK THREE. PREFACE OF RUFINUS.

You who read this, be mindful of me in your holy prayers, that we too may deserve to become emulators of the spirit. I have interpreted the two previous books *On First Principles* not only at your urging, but even at your compelling, during the days of Lent. But because in those days you also, religious brother Macarius, were dwelling nearby, and were more at leisure, I also worked more; but these two later ones we have explained more slowly, while you as a rarer exactor approach us from the extreme and furthest part of the city. But if you remember what I warned in the previous short preface, that some would be indignant if they heard us not speaking *some* evil of Origen, you forthwith, I think, approved of that which I pursued. But if in that work those demons who excite the tongues of men to speak evil were so inflamed, in which he had not yet fully disclosed their secrets; what do you think will happen in this one, in which he will reveal all their blind and hidden ways, by which they creep into human hearts and deceive weak and fragile souls? You will see everything immediately disturbed, seditions stirred up, and clamors spread through the whole city, calling to condemnation him who has attempted to dispel the dark shadows of diabolical ignorance with the light of an evangelical lamp. But let him who desires to be exercised in divine learning while keeping the rule of the Catholic faith intact, make little account of these things; but I must necessarily warn you of this, as we did in the previous books, that we have also observed in these, not to interpret those things which seemed contrary to his other opinions and to our faith, but to pass over them as if they had been inserted there by others and adulterated. But if he has seemed to say anything new concerning rational creatures, because the summit of faith is not in this, for the sake of knowledge and exercise, when perhaps we must necessarily respond in such order to some heresies, I have not omitted it in these books, nor in the previous ones, unless perhaps he himself wished to repeat in these latter ones what he had already said in the previous ones, and for the sake of brevity I decided it was convenient to prune some of these. If, however, anyone reads these with the desire of making progress and not of detracting, he will do better if he wishes to have them explained to him by those more skilled. For it is absurd that the feigned poems of poets and the ridiculous fables of comedies should be explained by grammarians, and those things which are said either about God, or about the heavenly powers, and about the entire universe, in which all

of philosophers, or the corrupt error of heretics, to think that anyone can learn without a master and expositor; and thus it happens that men prefer, through rashness and ignorance, to condemn difficult and obscure matters rather than to learn them through diligence and study.

Chapter I. Concerning the liberty of the will.

^A 1. We believe that certain things must be held concerning divine promises, while we direct our understanding toward the contemplation of that eternal age, which is closed by no end, and contemplate its ineffable joy and blessedness. But since there is also present in ecclesiastical preaching faith concerning the future just judgment of God, which belief in judgment provokes men and urges them to live well and honorably, and to flee from sin in every way, and by this it is without doubt indicated that it is placed in our power to yield ourselves either to a life worthy of praise, or one worthy of blame, therefore I think it necessary to discuss briefly also ^B concerning the liberty of our will, for the reason that this question also is not unworthily agitated by very many. But in order that we may more easily understand what the liberty of the will is, and what the nature of the will and volition itself signifies, let us inquire.

2. Of things that are moved, some carry the causes of their motions within themselves, others receive them from without; for instance, all things that are without life are moved only from without, such as stones and wood, and whatever things of this kind consist only by the habit of their matter or bodies. ^C But let that question be omitted now which thinks that there is also a motion when bodies are dissolved through corruption; for these things in no way contribute to the present matter. But other things have the cause of motion within themselves, as animals, or trees, and all things which consist through natural life or through a soul: among which it has seemed to some that even the veins of metals are to be reckoned; but fire also is to be thought to have its own motion, and perhaps also the springs of waters. ^D Now, these things which have the cause of their motions in themselves are said to be moved in one way "from themselves" (ex se), and in another way "by themselves" (a se), and they divide it thus: that those things which indeed live, 109 yet are not living creatures (animantia), are moved "from themselves"; but living creatures are moved "by themselves," when to them a phantasy, that is, ...

New Interpretation. Chapter I.

1. ...the ecclesiastical preaching contains the word concerning the just judgment of God, which, when believed to be true, also calls those who hear it to live well, and in every way to flee sin, inasmuch as they confess that those things which are worthy of praise and blame are placed in us; come then, let us also discuss separately a few things concerning free will, a question necessary in the first place. And that we may understand what the liberty of the will is, its notion must be explained, so that, this being accurately declared, the question may be established.

2. Of those things which are moved, some have the cause of motion within themselves; others are moved only from without. Therefore only those things are moved from without which are carried, such as wood and stones and all matter which is contained by habit alone. Now, let that be passed over which is wont to be said, that there is a motion of the dissolution of bodies; which contributes nothing to the present subject. But animals and plants, those indeed all things which nature and...

^A its own constitution regularly incite to this very thing; and no other thing is trusted to the animal after its phantastic nature, and in the bee ^B for the construction of honeycomb. However, the rational animal possesses reason also, in addition to its phantastic nature—a reason which judges the phantasies, and rejects some while accepting others, so that the animal may be led according to them. Whence, since in the nature of reason there are principles for contemplating the honorable and the base, by following which we contemplate the honorable and the base, we choose the honorable and decline the base; we are praiseworthy when we have given ourselves to the practice of the honorable, and blameworthy according to the contrary. One ought not, however, to be ignorant that that which is beyond the nature ordered for all things exists to some degree in animals, and to a greater or lesser extent, so that it is, if I may so speak, near to being the rational, like the working in hunting dogs ^C and in war horses. Therefore, the falling of some external thing upon us, which creates such or such a phantasy, is admittedly not within our own power. But to judge how to make use of that which has occurred, whether in this way or otherwise, is the work of nothing else than the reason which is within us, which either acts upon the principles that incite us toward the honorable and toward the impulses of duty, or turns us toward the contrary. But if someone says that the external thing itself is of such a sort that it is impossible to resist it when it has become such, let him consider his own passions and movements, if ^D some kind of urge or incitement has been present, which moved or provoked it to be moved toward something. Finally, in some living beings there is such a phantasy, that is, a will or sense which, by a certain natural instinct, provokes and impels them to ordered and composite motions: as we see spiders doing, by which phantasy, that is, by a certain will and study of weaving, they are most orderly excited to the work of weaving, without doubt by a certain natural motion provoking the intention of such a work; yet the animal is not found to have any other sense than the natural study of weaving, just as bees are found to have the study of forming honeycombs, and, as they say, of gathering those of the air.

3. But when the rational animal has these natural motions in itself, it has indeed more than other animals the force of reason, by which it can judge and discern concerning natural motions, and indeed reject and cast away some, while proving and accepting others; by the judgment of which reason, the motions of man can be directed and governed toward an upright life. Whence it follows that since the nature of this reason which is in man has in itself the power of discerning good or evil, and when it discerns this, there is in it also the faculty of choosing that which it has approved, it is rightly judged laudable in choosing that which is good, and culpable in following that which is base or evil. This indeed ought by no means to escape us, that in some mute animals a more ordered motion is found than in other animals, as in sagacious dogs or war horses, so that they seem to some to be moved as if by a certain rational sense. But this is to be believed to be done not so much by reason as by a certain incitement and natural motion more generously bestowed for uses of this kind. But as we had begun to say, since the rational animal is thus constituted, some things can indeed fall upon us humans from without and occur, whether to the sight or to the hearing or to other senses, which might stir and provoke us to good or contrary motions: which, in that they fall upon us from without, it is not placed in our power that they should not fall or occur. But to judge and to prove how we ought to make use of these things that occur is the business of no one else nor the task of anything but the reason which is in us, that is, of our own judgment; by the judgment of which reason we make use of the external incitements that occur to that which reason itself has approved, our natural motions being governed by its nod either toward good or toward contrary things (14).

4. But if anyone says that things which occur from without are such that it is not possible to oppose them, whether for good or for evil, let him consider his own passions and motions.

NEW INTERPRETATION

let him for a little while turn his mind upon himself, and diligently examine his own motions, unless he find that, when the enticement of some desire pulsates, nothing happens before the assent of the mind is accommodated, and the will indulges the perverse suggestion. So that even against plausible causes, an assertion appears to be brought forward before the tribunals of our heart as if to a judge sitting on either side, so that, the causes having been first set forth, the sentence of acting is brought out from the judgment of reason. For it is not, to say it by way of example, that for a man who has determined to live temperately and chastely, and to refrain from all female contagion, if perchance a woman appears, provoking him and enticing him ^B to do something against his resolution, there exists a perfect and absolute cause, or a necessity for transgressing: since he can, mindful of his resolve, restrain the incitements of lust, and coerce the enticements of the irritant by the more austere rebukes of virtue, so that, every sense of luxury being put to flight, the firmness and constancy of his purpose may persevere. Finally, if such incitements come to more learned men, and those strengthened in divine institutions, they, mindful of themselves, calling to memory the things which they have long meditated upon and in which they have been instructed, and fortifying themselves with the stays of holier doctrine, reject and refute every enticement of incitement, and drive away adverse concupiscences by the objection of the reason implanted in them.

5. Since, therefore, these things are proven to be so by certain natural testimonies, how is it not superfluous that the causes of our deeds should be retorted onto those things which happen extrinsically, and that the blame, in which all the cause lies, should be removed from us, which is to say that we are like wood or stones which have no motion within themselves, but suffer the causes of their motion from without? Which is surely neither truly said, nor decently, but is taken refuge in only to deny the freedom of the will: unless we think that the freedom of the will can indeed only consist if there is nothing which, coming upon us from without, provokes us to good or to evil. But if anyone refers the causes of sins to the natural intemperance of the body, it is shown by the whole of ^C erudition to be against reason.

NEW INTERPRETATION

5. That it is not right nor consonant with truth to declare that we are like wood and stones drawn by an external mover is something that can be said only by one who desires to adulterate the notion of free will. For if we ask him what free will is, he will answer that it consists in this: that while I propose some object to myself, nothing from without should occur to provoke me to the contrary. Again, to accuse the feeble constitution of the body is altogether absurd. For whomsoever discipline catches, even if they be intemperate and most savage, if they follow its admonitions, it so converts and changes them into something better that often those who were most incontinent become better than those who previously did not seem to be of such a nature, and those who were most savage come to such meekness that those who have never lived a savage life appear savage in comparison with him who has been changed unto meekness. Against others we see most composed and honest men, from a composed and honest life, turned to...

^B worse habits by the subversion of that composed and honest state, so that they fall away into licentiousness, often beginning such licentiousness in the middle of their life, and falling into disorder after that which, so far as nature is concerned, is the instability of youth has already passed. Reason therefore shows that while those things which come from without are not in our power, it is our own work to use them either in this way or otherwise, having taken reason as a judge and examiner of how one ought to meet each of these things that come from without. ^C That it is our own work to live well, and that God asks this of us—as not being His own, nor coming from some other source, or, as some think, from fate, but as being our own work—the prophet Micah will testify, saying: "If it has been announced to you, O man, what is good, or what the Lord requires of you, other than to do judgment and to love mercy?" And Moses: "I have set before your face the way of life and the way of death, to choose what is good and to walk in it." And Isaiah: "If you will and hear me, you shall eat the good things of the earth; but if you will not, nor hear me, the sword shall devour you; for the mouth of the Lord has spoken these things." And in the Psalms it is written: "If my people had heard me, and Israel had walked in my ways, at nothing I would have humbled their enemies, and I would have laid my hand upon those who afflict them," by which he shows that it was in the power of the people to hear and to walk in the ways of God. And the Savior also, saying: "But I say to you, do not resist the wicked one," and, "Whoever is angry with his brother, shall be liable to judgment."

NEW INTERPRETATION

...to deflect their worse behavior so that they fall into intemperance in mid-life, after the instability of youth, as nature brings about, has passed. From these things, therefore, it is clear that events from without are not in our power, but to use them in this way or the contrary way, with reason as a guide and as one that discerns and judges how one ought to use external things, is placed in our power. ^D ...nor, as some think, from fate, but as our own work—God requiring it—the prophet Micah will testify, saying: "If it has been indicated to you, O man, what is good, or what the Lord requires from you? Is it not to do judgment and to love mercy?" And Moses: "I have set before your sight the way of life and the way of death, that you may choose what is good and walk in it." And Isaiah: "If you will and hear me, you shall eat the good things of the earth; but if you will not, and do not hear me, the sword shall devour you: for the mouth of the Lord has spoken these things." And in the Psalms: "If my people had heard me, and if Israel had walked in my ways, I would have humbled his enemies to nothing, and I would have sent my hand against those who afflict him." By which he shows that it was in the power of the people to hear and to walk in the ways of God. And the Savior also, saying: "But I say to you not to resist the evil one," and: "Whoever shall have been angry with his brother, shall be liable to judgment," and: "Whoever shall have looked at a woman to lust after her, has already committed adultery with her in his heart"; and when He gives all other commandments, He gives them as if it were entirely within our power to keep them, so that we may justly be liable to judgment in the future if we break them: whence also "Every..."

^A He says, "who hears these words of mine and does them, will be likened to a wise man, who built his house upon the rock," and so forth; "and he who hears and does not, is like a foolish man, who built his house upon the sand," and so forth. And saying to those on the right: "Come, you who are blessed of my Father," and so forth, "for I was hungry and you gave me to eat; I was thirsty and you gave me to drink," He shows very clearly that the promises are given as to those who are responsible for being praised. And from the contrary, ^B to others, as being blameworthy before Him, He says this: "Go, you cursed, into eternal fire." Let us also see how Paul also speaks to us as having free will, and as being the authors of our own destruction or salvation: "Or do you despise the riches of his goodness," he says, "and forbearance and long-suffering, not knowing that the goodness of God leads you to repentance? But in accordance with your hardness and your impenitent heart, you are treasuring up for yourself wrath in the day of wrath and revelation of the righteous judgment of God, who will render to each according to his works: to those who by patient continuance ^C in well-doing seek for glory and honor and immortality, eternal life; but to those who are contentious and do not obey the truth, but obey unrighteousness, indignation and wrath, tribulation and anguish, upon every soul of man who does evil, of the Jew first and also of the Greek; but glory, honor, and peace to every one who does what is good, to the Jew first and also to the Greek." There are, therefore, thousands of things in the Scriptures which very clearly demonstrate free will. ^D

NEW INTERPRETATION

Otherwise, it would be contradictory that commands should be given to us, by the keeping of which we might be saved, or by the transgression of which we might be condemned, if the power to observe them were not within us.

7. But since there are found in the Divine Scriptures certain words so placed that from them something contrary may seem to be understood, let us bring them forward and, discussing them according to the rule of piety, let us provide their explanations, so that from these few which we set forth, a clear resolution may become evident regarding other things also that have been said in a similar way, in which the power of the will seems to be excluded. ^A Many, therefore, are moved by those things which are said by God concerning Pharaoh, when He says frequently: "I will harden the heart of Pharaoh." For if he is hardened by God, and because he is hardened he sins, he is not himself the cause of his own sin. And if this is so, Pharaoh will not seem to have the freedom of the will, and it will now consequently be asserted by this example that not even the others who perish receive the cause of their perdition from the liberty of their own will. But that also which is said in Ezekiel, when he says: "I will take away their stony hearts, and will put in them hearts of flesh, that they may walk in my commandments, and keep my ways," might move someone, because it seems that it is given by God either to walk in His commandments or to keep His justifications; ^B since, if He Himself takes away the stony heart, which stands in the way of keeping the commandments, and puts in and inserts a better and more sensitive heart, which is now called heart of flesh, (this might move one to think so). See also what in the Gospel the Lord and Savior answers to those who asked Him why He spoke to the crowds in parables; for He says: "That seeing they may not see, and hearing they may not hear and may not understand, lest at any time they should be converted, and it should be forgiven them." ^C Furthermore, also, that which is said by the apostle Paul: "It is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that showeth mercy," and in other places: "And both to will and to do is of God." And again in another place: "Therefore, He hath mercy on whom He will, and whom He will He hardeneth. Thou wilt say therefore to me: Why then does He yet find fault? For who resisteth His will? O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it: Why hast thou made me thus? Or hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump, to make one vessel unto honor, and another unto dishonor?" These things and others like them seem not a little to be able to deter many, lest anyone think that he has the liberty of his own will, but that it seems some are saved and some perish from the will of God.

NEW INTERPRETATION

But since, on the contrary, it would not be whole for us to keep the commandments and be saved, or to break them and perish, some sayings of the Old and New Testament seem to deflect; come then, and with these set forth severally, let us look into their solution, so that from the likeness of those which we propose, he who wishes may perceive the solution of all those which seem to take away the liberty of the will. Indeed, very many are moved by those things which are said concerning Pharaoh, about whom God, answering, says frequently: "I will harden the heart of Pharaoh." For if he is hardened by God, and because he is hardened he sins, he is not himself the cause of his sin, and thus neither is Pharaoh under his own jurisdiction. Hence, from a similar case, one will say that those who perish are not free, nor do they perish by their own selves; and that which in

^A truth is said concerning Pharaoh is that he is hardened by God, so that he might not send forth the people. Alongside this, we shall examine also the apostolic text: “Therefore he has mercy on whom he wills, and whom he wills he hardens.”

Book Three

New Interpretation

^A And now we must respond to those who think they have understood the words, "He hardened." Why do they say that God works to harden the heart, and what is His purpose in doing so? Let them hold fast to the concept of God—according to a sound understanding, as both just and good; but if they do not wish to do this, let us for the present grant their view, namely that He is just—and let them show how the good and just God, or even the one who is just alone, appears just when He hardens the heart of someone who is perishing because of that hardening; and how the just one becomes the cause of destruction and the disobedience of those whom He punishes because they were hardened and disobeyed Him. Why does He also blame him, saying: "But you do not wish to let my people go? See, I will strike all the firstborn in Egypt, and your firstborn," and whatever else is written as spoken by God to Pharaoh through Moses? For it is necessary for anyone who believes that the Scriptures are true and that God is just, if he is fair-minded, to struggle to understand how in such expressions He is clearly understood to be just. For if someone were to openly and candidly stand up to declare that the Creator is evil, another sort of argument would be needed for him.

^B They say that Pharaoh was of a nature that was to be destroyed, and therefore he was hardened by God, who shows mercy to spiritual natures and hardens earthly ones. Let us see, therefore, what they mean by this. For we shall ask them whether Pharaoh was of an "earthly" nature. If they answer that he was, we shall say: since he was of an earthly nature, he was clearly able to resist God—but if he resists, what need is there for his heart to be hardened, and not once, but repeatedly? Unless it is perhaps that, since it was possible for him to obey, and he would have been likely to obey, having been struck by so many wonders and signs, as someone not at all "earthly," but one who resisted all the more, God needed to harden his heart in order to display His own greatness for the salvation of many. Let this be said first, to overturn what they imagine: that Pharaoh was of a perishing nature. And the same must be answered to them concerning the Apostle’s statement. For whom does God harden? The perishing, who would have obeyed, however, if they had not been hardened; or certainly those to be saved, because they are not of a perishing nature? And whom does He show mercy to? To those to be saved? But what need is there for a second mercy for those who are saved by their nature, and are about to enjoy blessedness? Unless perhaps it is because they can perish if mercy is withdrawn, they receive mercy so that they do not fall into the destruction into which they could fall, but may be in the company of those who are saved. And let these things be said against them.

9. But we must ask those who think they understand what it means to be "hardened," and what is provided when He hardens a heart. Let them observe the notion of God—as truly just and good, or, if they are unwilling, and if this is conceded to them for the moment, let them observe Him as just alone—and let them show how the good and just one, or even the one who is just alone, appears just while hardening the heart of one who perishes because he has been hardened; and how the just one is the cause of the destruction and contumacy of those whom He punishes because they were hardened and they themselves resisted. Why does He then complain against him, saying: "But you do not wish to let my people go; see, I will strike all the firstborn in Egypt, and your firstborn," and whatever else is attributed to God in the Scriptures when He speaks to Pharaoh through Moses? For it is necessary that he who believes the Scriptures are true and that God is just, if he has a good faith, should carefully demonstrate how such statements do not at all hinder Him from being understood as openly just. For if someone were to professedly, earnestly, and argumentatively declare that the Creator of the world is evil, it would have to be dealt with in another way.

^A Since they say that we must treat of Him as just, and we too treat of Him as both good and just, let us examine how the good and just God could be said to harden Pharaoh's heart. See, then, if by means of some example that the Apostle used in the Epistle to the Hebrews, we might be able to show how, with one single operation, God shows mercy to one and hardens another—not intending to harden, but because, through a good purpose which follows, and because of the matter of wickedness that lies within those people themselves, He is said to harden the one who is hardened. "For earth," he says, "which has drunk the rain that comes upon it, and brings forth vegetation fit for those for whose sake it is cultivated, receives a blessing from God; but if it bears thorns and thistles, it is rejected and near to a curse, whose end is to be burned." ^B Therefore, the operation of the rain is one. But since the operation of the rain is one, the land that has been cultivated brings forth fruit, while that which has been neglected and lies waste brings forth thorns. And it would be considered blasphemous to say of the One who sends the rain, "I have made both the fruits and the thorns that are in the earth." Yet, even if it is blasphemous, it is nevertheless true; for if the rain had not occurred, neither fruits nor thorns would have come into being. But because it fell opportunely and in due measure, both were produced. Thus, the land that, having drunk the rain that comes upon it, brings forth thorns and thistles many times, becomes rejected and near to a curse. So then, the good of the rain has come even upon the poorer land, but the ground that lies neglected and uncultivated has brought forth thorns and thistles. In the same way, the mighty works done by God are, as it were, rain; but the diverse inclinations are, as it were, the cultivated land and the neglected land, although they are of one and the same nature. ^C

10. But we, since we confess that God—who spoke through Moses—is not only just but also good, let us examine more diligently how it is consistent for a just and good God that Pharaoh's heart is said to be hardened; and let us see if we can perhaps, by following the Apostle Paul, solve the difficulty of the matter with certain examples and comparisons, if we show that by one and the same work God indeed has mercy on one and hardens another, not doing this or wishing that the one who is hardened should be hardened: but while that person makes use of His kindness and patience, those who take His kindness and patience as an occasion for contempt and insolence find their heart hardened while the punishment for their crimes is deferred; whereas those who take His kindness and patience as an occasion for their own repentance and amendment obtain mercy. But in order that we may demonstrate more evidently what we are saying, let us use the example which the apostle Paul used in the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying: "For the earth which drinks the rain that frequently comes upon it and germinates vegetation fit for those by whom it is cultivated, will receive a blessing from God; but that which brings forth thorns and thistles is rejected and near to a curse, whose end is for burning." Therefore, from these words of Paul which we have taken up, it is evidently shown that by the same work of God by which He grants rain to the earth, some land, being diligently cultivated, brings forth good fruits; but other land, which is negligently left uncultivated, brings forth thorns and thistles. And if someone were to speak as if in the person of the rains, saying: "I, the rain, have made good fruits, and I have made thorns and thistles"; although it seems harsh to say this, it is yet truly said; for if there were no rain, neither fruits nor thorns nor thistles would be born; but with the rain supervening, the earth produced both. But although by the benefit of the rain the earth produced both growths, the diversity of the growth is not rightly ascribed to the rains, but the blame for the bad seed is justly reflected back upon those who, when they could have cut through the earth with a frequent plow, and turned the sluggish clods with heavy rakes, and pruned and cut down all the useless roots of noxious grass, and prepared the fallow land—cleansed and cultivated—for the coming rains, neglected to do this; and they reap as the most fitting fruits of their own laziness, thorns and thistles; so it happens that the goodness and equality of the rains comes equally upon all the earth, but by one and the same work of the shower, that land which is cultivated is useful ^D NEW INTERPRETATION.

10. But when they say that they believe Him just, we confess Him to be both good and just at the same time; let us see how the good and just God hardens the heart of Pharaoh. See, therefore, whether by some example which the Apostle used in the Epistle to the Hebrews we can show how, by one and the same work, God has mercy on this one and hardens that one, not because He proposes to anyone that he should be hardened, but because when the wickedness of the vice that is inherent in him abuses His good proposal, hardening follows, and so he who is hardened is said to be hardened: "For the earth," he says, "drinking the rain that frequently comes upon it and generating vegetation fit for those by whom it is cultivated, receives a blessing from God; but bringing forth thorns and thistles, it is rejected and near to a curse, whose consummation is for burning." One

should therefore understand that the signs and wonders that were performed by God were like the rain sent down from above by God, while the purpose and will of men are like the soil, either cultivated or uncultivated, which, though all of one nature—as all soil is—is not of one and the same cultivation. From this it happens that the intention of each individual is either hardened by the wonders and miracles of God, if it is uncultivated, wild, and savage, becoming itself more harsh and thorny, or it becomes ^A more mild, and with its whole mind surrenders itself to obedience, if it has been purged of its vices and cultivated.

It will not be superfluous to use another comparison: for example, if someone were to say that the sun is that which restricts and that which dissolves, though dissolution and restriction are opposites, he would not be saying anything false regarding the underlying thing, since by one and the same power of heat, the sun melts wax but dries out and hardens mud. This is not because its power acts differently in the mud than in the wax, but because the quality of mud is one thing and the quality of wax is another, even though by nature they are one, since both are of the earth. So, therefore, the one and same operation of God, which was performed through Moses in signs and wonders, proved the hardness of Pharaoh, which he had conceived by the intention of his own malice; yet it declared the obedience of the rest of the Egyptians who joined themselves to the Israelites, and who are even reported to have left Egypt together with the Hebrews.

But as to what is written, that the heart of Pharaoh was gradually softened so that he would sometimes say, "Do not go far, you shall walk a journey of three days, but leave your wives and your infants and your flocks," and whatever else he said in response to the wonders while yielding little by little, what else is indicated by this than that the power of the signs and wonders was indeed acting on him, but was not accomplishing everything? For ^B even these things would not have happened if that which is understood by the many—"I will harden the heart of Pharaoh"—were performed by God himself. Nor is it absurd to explain such matters from common usage; for often kind masters say to servants who, on account of the kindness and patience of their ^C masters, become more insolent, "I have made you wicked, and I have become the cause to you of such great sins." For one must listen to the *ethos* and the power of what is said, and not cavil by failing to heed the meaning of the discourse. Paul, at any rate, having clearly examined these things, says to the one who sins, "Or do you despise the riches of his kindness and tolerance and patience, not knowing that the kindness of God leads you to repentance? But according to your hardness and impenitent heart, you are storing up for yourself wrath on the day of wrath and revelation of the righteous judgment of God." For what the Apostle says to the one who sins

let it be said to Pharaoh, and these things reported to him may be understood very fittingly in accordance with his hardness and impenitent heart, as he treasures up for himself wrath; for the hardness would not have been revealed in such a way, nor would it have become manifest, had not the signs occurred, or if they had ^A occurred, they would not have been so many and so great.

But since such accounts are difficult to accept and are thought to be harsh, let us see also from the prophetic word what those who have experienced the great goodness of God and have not lived rightly, but have sinned after these things, say: "Why, O Lord, have you caused us to wander from your way? Why have you hardened our heart so as not to fear your name? Return for the sake of your servants, for the sake of the tribes of your inheritance, that we may inherit a little of your holy mountain." And in Jeremiah: "You have misled me, O Lord, and I was misled; you held me fast and prevailed." For the utterance, "Why have you hardened our heart so as not to fear your name?" spoken by those praying to receive mercy, is meant in a moral sense to be: Why have you spared us to such a degree, not visiting us for our sins, but leaving us until our offences reached a great magnitude? He abandons the majority, not punishing them, so that the character of each may be tested by what depends on us, and the better ^B ones may be revealed by the trial that has taken place; while the rest, not escaping—not God, for He knows all things before their birth, but the rational beings themselves—may later obtain a path of healing; for they would not have known the benefit, had they not condemned themselves.

12. New Interpretation.

12. Now if the proofs we have mentioned seem less than full, and the assertion seems to have little support from the apostolic likeness, let us add the assent of prophetic authority, and see what the prophets also declare about those who, having first lived rightly, deserved to have very many experiments of God's goodness, but later sinned like men; with whom, making Himself one, the Prophet says: "Why, O Lord, have you caused us to wander from your way? And why have you hardened our heart so ^C as not to fear your name? Return for the sake of your servants, for the sake of the tribes of your inheritance, that we also may possess a small portion of your holy inheritance." But Jeremiah similarly says: "You have seduced us, O Lord, and we were seduced: you held us and prevailed." Therefore, what he says: "Why, O Lord, have you hardened our heart so as not to fear your name?" is a statement from those who were praying for mercy and must be accepted in a moral sense; just as if one were to say: Why have you spared us to such an extent and not sought us out when we were sinning, but left us so that through this the evil might increase, and the license to sin be propagated while punishment ceased? Thus [it is]… ^D

it is beneficial for each person to realize his own peculiar state and the grace of God. But he who does not perceive his own weakness and the grace of God, even if he be benefited, since he has not made trial of himself nor condemned himself, will think that the good deed which was granted to him from heavenly grace is his own; and this pride, having produced haughtiness, will be the cause of a fall; which we believe to have happened also in the case of the devil, who attributed to himself the advantages he possessed when he was blameless; for "everyone who exalts himself shall be humbled," and "everyone who humbles himself shall be exalted." Understand also that for this reason divine things are hidden from the wise and prudent, so that, as the Apostle says, "no flesh may boast before God," and that they are revealed to babes, to those who after their infancy have advanced toward better things, and who are mindful that they have not arrived at such a great degree of blessedness so much by their own cause as by the ineffable beneficence [of God].

If it does not suffer the iron-shod heel of the persistent rider and is worn down by iron bits, it becomes hard. Thus, a childish age ^A if it is not cured by the persistence of the rod, will render a youth insolent and at the same time headlong into vices. God therefore leaves and neglects those whom He has judged unworthy of correction. "For whom the Lord loves, He corrects, but He scourges every son whom He receives." From this it must be thought that those are received into the order and affection of sons who have deserved to be scourged and corrected by the Lord, so that, of course, through the patience of temptations and tribulations, they might also be able to say: "Who shall separate us from the love of God which is in Christ Jesus? Tribulation? or distress? or famine? or nakedness? or peril? or the sword?" For through all these things the purpose of each individual is manifested and revealed, and the firmness of perseverance is indicated, not so much to God—who knows all things before they come to pass—as to the reasonable and celestial powers, who have obtained the task of watching over human salvation as certain helpers and ministers of God.

Those, however, who do not yet offer themselves to God with such constancy, nor with such affection, and are not prepared as they approach the service of God to prepare their souls for temptation, are said to be left by God—that is, not to be instructed—because they are not prepared to be instructed, their time for dispensation or healing being without doubt deferred for the future. They, at any rate, are ignorant of what they will obtain from God, unless they first arrive at a desire for obtaining the benefit: which will happen only if one first recognizes himself, and feels what is lacking to him; and understands from whom he ought to, or can, seek what is missing. For he who has not first understood his own infirmity or sickness does not know how to seek a physician; or at least, when he has received health, he will not be grateful to the physician if he has not first recognized the danger of his own malady. So also, if one has not first recognized the vices of his soul and the evils of his sins, and has not revealed them by the confession of his own mouth, he cannot be cleansed and absolved, lest he be ignorant that what he possesses was granted to him by grace, and might think that the divine liberality is his own good; which thing, without doubt, again generates arrogance ^B of soul and elation, and again becomes for him a cause of ruin. Which is also to be understood concerning the devil, who believed that his own primacies were his own and not given by God, which he had then when he was immaculate; and that sentence which says, "everyone who exalts himself shall be humbled," was fulfilled in him. Whence it seems to me that for this reason divine mysteries have been hidden from the more prudent and wise, just as Scripture says, "that no flesh may boast in the sight of God"; and have been revealed to the little ones—that is, those who afterwards

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humbles himself shall be exalted." ^A And for this cause, understand that the divine mysteries are hidden from the wise and prudent, so that, as the Apostle says, "no flesh may glory in the sight of God"; and that they are revealed to the little ones who, after infancy, have attained to better things, and remember that they have reached that state of happiness not so much of themselves as by the ineffable benefit of God.

13. Therefore, he who is abandoned is abandoned by a divine judgment, and God is patient with some of those who sin, yet not without a sure reason. And even this very fact of His being patient acts to their benefit, since the soul for which He exercises care and providence is immortal; and that which is immortal and eternal, even if it is not cured quickly, is nevertheless not excluded from salvation, which is deferred to more opportune times. For it is perhaps to the advantage of those who have been infected with the poisons of deeper malice to attain salvation more tardily. For just as physicians, when they are able to close up the scars of wounds more quickly, sometimes dissimulate and defer the healing with a view to a better and more lasting health, knowing that it is better to cause a delay in the swellings of the wounds and to allow the flows of malignant humor to escape for a little while than to hasten to the appearance of health and include the fuel of the poisoned humor, which has been shut out from its accustomed passages, deep within the veins; this, without a doubt, will creep into the inner parts of the limbs and penetrate the vital organs, bringing not now mere disease to the body, but destruction to life; ^B in this same way, God, who knows the secrets of the heart and foreknows the future, through much patience allows certain things to happen, which, by occurring to men from without, provoke the passions and vices that are hidden within to be brought forth and to come to light; so that, through them, those who through much negligence and carelessness have received the roots and seeds of sins within themselves may be purged and cured, so that having been cast forth and provoked to the surface, they may in a certain sense be vomited out and digested; so that even if a man seems to be afflicted with more grievous evils, while he endures the convulsions of all his limbs, he may yet be able to cease at some time and desist and take his fill of evils, and thus, after many hardships, be restored to his own state. For God does not dispense our souls for this short time of our life alone, which is concluded within almost sixty years or a little more, but for everlasting and eternal time, as He Himself is eternal and immortal, holding also the providence of immortal souls. For He has made the rational nature incorruptible, and to it...

^A there is not excluded by the brevity of this present life of ours the care and divine remedies of the soul which is immortal.

14. But let us also adopt the likenesses from the Gospels which we mentioned, where it is reported that there is a certain rock having a small and shallow soil, into which if the seed should fall, it is quickly said to spring up, but when it has sprung up, because it did not give root into the depth, as the sun rises it is scorched and withered because that which has sprung up. ^B And this rock is the human soul, hardened by negligence and turned to stone by wickedness—for no one was created by God with a heart of stone; rather, it becomes such through wickedness. Just as, then, if someone were to blame the farmer for not having cast the seeds more quickly upon the rocky ground, seeing another rocky piece of ground that had received the seeds and was flourishing, the farmer might answer that "I will sow this ground more slowly, having applied the things that can retain what is to be sown, since for this ground the slower and safer way will be better than that which received it more quickly and superficially"; if he were persuaded that the farmer spoke reasonably and acted skillfully, ^C so also the great farmer of every nature delays the favor that might have been thought to come more quickly, so that it might not be merely superficial. But it is likely that someone might raise an objection to us regarding this: "Why then does some of the seed fall upon the ground that has soil only at the surface, which is, as it were, a rocky soul?" It must be said in response to this that it is better for someone who desires the better things too hastily, and who has not traveled the path toward them, to obtain what he has desired, in order that, having condemned himself in this, he may show patience in receiving, after a long time, the cultivation that is according to nature. For countless, as one might say, are the souls to us, and countless are their characters, and most numerous are their movements, and purposes, and intentions, and impulses, of which there is one excellent dispenser, who knows the seasons and ^D the appropriate aids, and the leadings, and the ways, the God and Father of all, who knows by what way He leads. [index: entries preserved]

14. But come, let us also use this evangelical likeness: there is a certain rock whose surface is covered with very little soil, in which seeds falling sprout quickly, but because they have no root, when the sun rises they are scorched and perish. And this rock is the human soul, hardened by negligence and turned into stone through depravity; for God did not create a heart of stone for anyone, but wickedness makes it so. Just as, therefore, if someone seeing seeds cast into rocky ground being conceived and blooming, were to reproach the farmer for not having cast the seeds more quickly into the rocky ground, and the farmer were to answer that he would do the sowing in this ground later, after he had brought into it what might hold the seed, since a better and safer crop is produced from such ground later than from that which accepts more quickly and only on the surface; one would believe the farmer who both spoke truly and acted skillfully and wisely; so the great farmer of the whole of nature defers his beneficence, which might seem to be bestowed more quickly, until another time, lest it be only on the surface. But perhaps someone will object: "Why then does a part of the seeds fall into that which has soil only on the surface, which is, as it were, a rock—the soul?" To this it must be answered that for this one, who was carried away too precipitately toward good but did not proceed toward it with reason, it was more profitable to obtain what he desired, that by knowing and condemning himself from that very thing, he might patiently bear the cultivation that is by nature to be applied to him afterwards after a long time; for countless, if I may say so, are the souls we have, countless are their habits, their movements very numerous, their counsels likewise, their impulses, and appetites, of which one is the excellent dispenser, God, who knows both the times and the appropriate aids, and the leadings and the ways, the God and Father of all, who knows by what way he leads Pharao.

^A For not because he was drowned, did he perish; for in the hand of God are both we and our words, and all prudence and knowledge of works. And these things indeed we have said moderately by way of an apology concerning the hardening of Pharao's heart, and concerning that text: "He hath mercy on whom he will, and whom he will he hardeneth." ^B Let us look also at the passage from Ezechiel which says: "I will take away their stony hearts, and I will put in hearts of flesh, that they may walk in my justifications, and keep my commandments." For if, whenever God wills, he takes away stony hearts and puts in hearts of flesh, so that his commandments may be kept and his precepts observed, then it is not in our power to put away wickedness; for the taking away of stony hearts is nothing else than that the wickedness by which one is hardened should be removed by Him whom God wills. And the producing of a heart of flesh, so that one may walk in the commandments of God, and ^C keep his precepts, what else is it than to yield, and not to resist the truth, but to pursue virtues? But if God promises that he will do these things, and if we do not put away these stony hearts before He himself takes them away, it is evident that it is not placed in our power to put away wickedness; and if we accomplish nothing so that a heart of flesh is within us, but it is the work of God, then it will not be our work to order our life according to the standard of virtue, but clearly a divine benefit. This is what one would say who, from the bare words of Scripture, takes away the liberty of the will; but we shall answer that these things are to be understood in the same way as an unskilled and unlearned person, conscious of his own evils, moved either by a master's exhortation or by some other source, gives himself up of his own accord to him by whom he thinks he will be led to discipline and virtue; to whom, when he has given himself up, the master promises that he will take away his lack of skill and will instill ^D expertise into him: not because he who has committed himself to be cared for by him contributes nothing toward attaining learning and fleeing from lack of skill, but because he promises healing to one who is willing. Thus the divine word promises that it will take away from those who have approached it the wickedness which it calls a stony heart, not indeed from those who are unwilling, but from those who have surrendered themselves as patients to a physician; just as we read in the Gospels that the sick approached the Savior, praying that they might receive health, and were cured. And when the blind, for example, recover their sight, it is indeed, in so far as they prayed, the work of those who believed that they could be cured; but in so far as their sight is restored to them, it is the work of our Savior. Thus also the word of God promises that it will instill knowledge into those who approach it, by taking away the hard and stony heart, that is, wickedness, so that they may walk in the divine commands and keep the divine precepts.

^A to be made obedient and not resisting against the truth, and performing the works of virtue? If, therefore, God promises that He will do these things, and if we cannot lay aside the stony heart before He Himself removes it, it follows that the casting off of wickedness is not in our power, but in God’s. And again, if it is not in our action that a heart of flesh should be made in us, but the work of God alone, it will not be our work to live according to virtue, but it will seem to be entirely the work of divine grace. These things, indeed, are said by those who wish to argue from the literal text that nothing is placed in our power; to whom we shall respond that these things ought not to be understood in such a way, but rather just as if there were someone ignorant and unlearned, who, feeling the mark of his own ignorance—whether urged by the exhortation of someone else, or struck by the emulation of prudent men—should entrust himself to someone by whom he trusts he can be diligently instructed and competently taught: this person, therefore, who had already hardened himself in ignorance, if he gives himself—as we said—with every intention of heart to the teacher, and promises that he will obey in all things, the teacher, having perceived the intention of his purpose, will also competently promise that he will take away from him all ignorance and instill skill; not that he promises to accomplish this for a disciple who refuses or resists, but for one who offers himself and gives himself over to every obedience. So too does the divine word promise to those who approach it ^B that it will take away the heart of stone—not, certainly, from those who do not listen to it, but from those who receive the precepts of its doctrine; just as we find in the Gospels that the sick approach the Savior, asking to receive health, and only then are they cured. And indeed, for example, that the blind should recover their sight is, in the fact that they prayed to the Savior and believed that they could be cured by Him, the work of those who were cured; but in the fact that their sight is restored to them, it is the work of the Savior. Thus also in this, the divine word promises that it will provide instruction by removing the heart of stone, that is, by wiping away wickedness, so that they may be able through this to walk in the divine precepts and keep the mandates of the Law.

16. Further, it is set before us also that passage from the Gospel where the Savior said: ^C "That seeing...

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16. It follows from the Gospel that the Savior says he speaks in parables to those outside, "that seeing they may not see, and hearing they may not understand, lest perhaps they should be converted and their sins be forgiven them." Having seized upon this, the adversary will object: "If, when clearer words are heard, some are converted in such a way that they become worthy of the forgiveness of sins, and yet it is not within their power that they should hear clearer words, but lies with the teacher who on that account does not teach them more openly, lest perhaps they should see and understand, it is not in them to be saved." But if this is so, it is not in our power whether we are saved or perish. And indeed, if it had not been added, "lest perhaps they should be converted and their sins be forgiven them," we would probably have answered that the Savior did not wish those who were not going to be good and honest to understand the more recondite mysteries, and for that reason he had spoken to them in parables; but since it is added, "lest perhaps they should be converted and their sins be forgiven them," the defense of this passage is more difficult. First, therefore, this place is to be noted against the heretics, who are wont to hunt out certain sayings from the Old Testament from which it might seem, as they themselves dare to say, that there is a certain cruel plan of vengeance and punishment in the Creator—or by whatever other name they prefer to designate it—in order to show that there is no goodness in the Creator; but not with the same reasoning nor with candor in the Law

[...and] seeing they may not see, and hearing they may not understand, lest at any time they should be converted, and their sins should be forgiven them. ^A And he who is of the opposite opinion will say: "If absolutely some of those who hear more clearly are converted, so that they become worthy of the remission of sins, and the power to hear these clearer words does not lie with them, but with him who teaches, and for this reason he does not announce them more clearly to them, lest they should see and understand, then it is not in their power to be saved; but if this is so, we are not masters of our own will for salvation or destruction." Now, there would be a plausible defense against these things, if there were not added the clause, "lest at any time they should be converted, and their sins should be forgiven them"—that is, that the Savior did not wish those who were not going to be good and noble to understand the more mystical matters, and for this reason spoke to them in parables. But now, with the phrase, "lest at any time they should be converted, and their sins should be forgiven them," ^B the defense is more difficult.

First, therefore, it must be noted concerning this passage with regard to the heretics, who are wont to hunt for words from the Old Testament of this kind, where it appears, as they themselves dare to say, that there is cruelty in the Creator, or a vindictive and retributive disposition toward the worse, or whatever they wish to call such a thing, only so that they may say that there is no goodness in the One who created; yet they do not judge with the same mind, nor with the same fairness, those things which occur in the New Testament, but ignore things similar to those which they think are reprehensible in the Old. For clearly, even according to the Gospel, the Savior ^C is shown, as they themselves claim, not to speak clearly for this reason, that men might not be converted, and by being converted become worthy of the remission of sins; which in itself is in no way less than those things accused in the Old Testament. But if they seek a defense for the Gospel, it must be said to them: if they do not act reprehensibly by standing in a dissimilar way toward similar problems, and not finding fault according to the New, but seeking a defense, while concerning the Old they act as accusers regarding similar things, although they ought to defend them just as those from the New—from which we shall constrain them, through these similarities, to believe that all are God’s scriptures. Come then, and let us, as far as we are able, provide a defense for the matter at hand. ^D

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^A 17. We were saying earlier when discussing Pharaoh that sometimes a quicker recovery does not turn out for the good of those being healed, especially if they have fallen into serious [(68)] ailments and might easily be delivered from those into which they have fallen; for, despising the illness as easily curable, they do not take care a second time to avoid falling into it, and will find themselves back in it. For this reason, in such cases, God, the eternal One, who is the knower of hidden things, who knows all things before they come to pass, in His kindness defers a swifter assistance for them, and, if I may so say, by helping them He does not help them, since this is what is advantageous for them. It is likely, therefore, that those who are "outside," about whom the discourse is, being seen by the Savior in the context before us as not being steadfast in their conversion if they were to hear the things spoken more clearly, were managed by the Lord not to hear the deeper things more plainly, lest, having converted and been healed too quickly and obtained the remission of sins—as though the wounds of their wickedness were easy to heal—they should despise them and fall into them again more quickly. Perhaps, too, they are paying the penalty for their former sins, for which they had not yet fulfilled the time: because they were left alone by the divine oversight and became further filled with the specific evils they had sown, they are to be called later to a more steadfast repentance, not quickly falling back into those things into which they had previously fallen while despising the dignity of good things and giving themselves over to worse.

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17. We were saying above when discussing Pharaoh that a quicker cure does not always turn out to be useful to those who are being healed, if, as soon as they fall into illness, they are easily relieved of it. For humans easily despise an illness that is easily cured, and fall again into the very thing they do not guard against. Wherefore the eternal God, who is the knower of hidden things and knows all things before they come to pass, defers the swifter healing of such as these, and, if I may so say, cures them by not curing them, since that is what is expedient for them. When, therefore, the Savior saw those who are "outside," and of whom the discourse now treats, would not be stable in their conversion if they heard His words more openly, it is probable that the Lord dealt with them in such a way that they would not clearly understand higher things, lest, having converted more quickly and been healed by the acceptance of the forgiveness of sins, they might despise the wounds of their vices as if they were very easy to cure and fall more quickly into the same. Perhaps, too, they had not yet fulfilled the time appointed for them to wash away the sins they had committed after abandoning virtue. Divine care had indeed left them alone, so that, sated by the evils they had themselves perpetrated, they might at length be called to a firmer repentance, and not easily fall afterward into their former sins, by which they had corrupted the dignity of their honor and given themselves over to wickedness. Those who are compared with those who are "inside," and are said to be "outside," are not far removed from those who are inside; for while those who are inside hear the word openly, these hear it obscurely, being as it were wrapped in parables: yet they do hear. But others from among those who are "outside," called Tyrians, even though the Savior foreknew that they would have done penance in sackcloth and ashes long before, if He had approached their borders, do not even hear those things which the others who are "outside" hear, because, as is likely, they were by far beneath the dignity of the latter, so that at another time, after it has been more tolerable for them than for those who did not receive the word—among whom He also mentions the Tyrians—they might hear more opportunely and repent more firmly. But see whether we ought not, even beyond the zeal for inquiry, endeavor to preserve in all things our piety toward God and His Christ, since we strive with all our might, as is proper in such great and difficult questions, to prove that God provides for the immortal soul in various ways. If, therefore, anyone should ask, concerning those who are blamed, why, seeing miracles and hearing the divine word, they become no better, while the Tyrians would have done penance if such words and deeds had taken place among them; if, I say, anyone should ask with these words: Why did the Savior preach to them for their own destruction, so that a graver sin might be imputed to them? We will answer that God, who knows how all those are affected who blame His providence as if it were the cause of their failure to believe—in that it did not give them to see what it gave others to behold, nor did it dispose them to hear what it profited others to have heard—wishing to show that they do not possess a just excuse, grants them the things for which the accusers of His providence had asked, so that, having received them and nonetheless being convicted of the utmost impiety because they perceived no utility from them, they might lay aside such audacity, and thus, having been set free, might learn that God sometimes delays and lingers in bestowing benefits, and does not grant those things to be seen and heard by which, through the very seeing and hearing, the guilt of those who have been led to faith by neither the one nor the other might be argued to be the more grave.

^A Those who are called "those without"—it is clear, in comparison with those within, and not being altogether far removed from those within—hear those who clearly hear from within, but they hear unclearly, because it is spoken to them in parables; nevertheless, they do hear. But others of those without, who are called Tyrians, even though it was foreknown that they would long ago have repented sitting in sackcloth and ashes had the Savior drawn near their borders, do not even hear what those without hear, being, as is likely, further removed from the worthiness of those without, so that in another time, after it has become more tolerable for them than for those who did not receive the word (of whom he also made mention with the Tyrians), they may hear more opportunely and repent more firmly.

^B See, however, whether we are not rather striving to preserve, alongside a spirit of investigation, the piety that is altogether due toward God and his Christ, endeavoring to make an apology for everything, as in such great and such important matters, regarding the manifold providence of God, who provides for the immortal soul. If, then, anyone should inquire regarding those who are reproached, that while they see wonders and hear divine words they are not benefited, whereas the Tyrians would have repented if such things had happened and been spoken among them—and if, inquiring, someone should say, "Why on earth did the Savior preach to such people to their own detriment, so that their sin might be reckoned as heavier?"—we must say to him that the One who understands the dispositions of all those who blame His providence (as though it were because of it that they did not believe, seeing that it did not grant them to see what it graced others to look upon, and did not manage for them to hear these things which, having heard, others have been benefited), wishing to refute the apology that is not reasonable, gives those things for which those who complain of His governance asked, so that after receiving them, and being no less refuted as being most impious for not having even then applied themselves to being benefited, they may cease from such audacity, and by this very thing, being set free, may learn that God sometimes intends to benefit some, yet delays, not granting them to see and hear such things upon which—once seen and heard—the sin is proven to be heavier and more grievous for those who would not have believed even after such great and such things.

The human dispensation does not conclude within this life of the age, but the state of merits that was prior always provides the cause for the future state; and thus, by the immortal and eternal law of justice and the moderation of divine providence, the immortal soul is led to the height of perfection. If, however, it should occur to us, because we say that the word of preaching is deliberately deferred from those who are worse and more wicked, why the word was preached to those who were preferred to the Tyrians, who are certainly despised—whereby evil was indeed increased for them and their condemnation made graver, in that they heard the word who were not going to believe—it seems that the answer should be: God, who is the Creator of all minds, foreknowing the complaints against His providence, especially from those who say, "How could we believe when we have neither seen the things that the others have seen, nor heard the things that have been preached to others?"—insofar as the fault is outside of us, since those to whom the word was announced and signs were shown have delayed not at all, but rather have been stunned...

^A by the very power of the miracles; desiring to refute the occasions for complaints of this sort, and to show that it is not the dissimulation of divine providence, but the free will of the human mind that exists as the cause of its own perdition, He bestowed His grace even upon the unworthy and the incredulous through His benefactions, so that every mouth might truly be stopped and the human mind might recognize that nothing is lacking to itself from God, and simultaneously that he who has despised the divine benefits conferred upon him is more severely condemned than he who has not deserved to obtain or hear them. Let him understand and acknowledge that it belongs to divine mercy and His most equitable dispensation even this very fact, that He occasionally dissimulates in presenting to some the mysteries of divine virtue, so that they might either see or hear them, lest if they saw the power of these signs and heard the mysteries of His wisdom, and then despised and neglected them, they might be punished with a graver retribution of impiety.

18. Let us see now concerning that which is said: ^B "It is not of him who wills, nor of him who runs, but of God who shows mercy." For those who are of a different opinion say: "If it is not of him who wills, nor of him who runs, but of God who shows mercy, it is not in our power to be saved; for either our nature is such that we can either be saved or not be saved, or certainly it is solely in the will of Him who, if He wills, shows mercy and saves." To whom we first inquire: Is to will what is good, good or evil? And is for the one who runs to hasten so that he may arrive at the end of the good, praiseworthy? If indeed they say that it is blameworthy, they are clearly insane; for all the saints both will what is good and run toward what is good, and yet they are certainly not blameworthy. How then, if he who is not saved is of a bad nature, does he will what is good and run toward what is good, but does not find what is good? For they say that a bad tree does not bring forth good fruits; for a good fruit is to will what is good. And how is the fruit of a bad tree good? But if they say that to will what is good and to run toward what is good is intermediate, that is, neither good nor evil; we will say to them: If to will what is good and to run toward what is good is intermediate, then that which is contrary to these will also be intermediate, that is, to will what is evil and to run toward what is evil. But it is certain that to will evil and to run toward evil is not intermediate; therefore, neither is to will what is good and to run toward what is good intermediate.

NEW INTERPRETATION

18. Let us look at this: "It is not of him who wills, nor of him who runs, but of God who shows mercy." For they thus assume: "If it is not of him who wills nor of him who runs, but of God who shows mercy, our salvation does not depend on our free will, but on the nature granted to us by Him who created us such, or on the will of Him who, when He wills, shows mercy." To whom this must be asked: Is to will what is good, good or evil? Then, is the course of him who wills to attain the end by hastening toward what is honorable, worthy of praise or of blame? If they say the latter, they will answer altogether absurdly, since the saints will and run, and yet do nothing on that account worthy of blame. If they say that it is good to will what is good and to run toward what is good, we will ask how a lost nature wills what is good. For it is the same as if a bad tree were to bring forth good fruits, if indeed it is good to will what is better. If they answer a third thing, that to will what is good and to run toward what is good is something intermediate, which is neither good nor evil, we will reply: If to will what is good and to run toward what is good is something intermediate, then that which is the contrary of these will be intermediate, that is, to will what is evil and to run toward what is evil. But to will what is evil and to run toward what is evil is not intermediate; therefore, neither will to will what is good and to run toward what is good be intermediate. In this way, therefore, I believe this passage can be defended: "It is not of him who wills, nor of him who runs, but of God who shows mercy." Solomon in the book of Psalms (for it is his song of ascents, whose words we quote), says: "Unless the Lord build the house, they have labored in vain who build it. Unless the Lord keep the city, he watches in vain who keeps it"; not that He discourages us from building, or teaches us not to watch for the keeping of the city which is in our soul, but showing that whatever things are built without God, and which are not protected by His guardianship, are built in vain and kept in vain; since the Lord of the building and the Prince of the keeping of the city must rightfully be ascribed to God of all things. Just as, therefore, if we were to say: "It is not the builder's, but God's work that is this building; and not the watchman's, but God of all things who has rendered this city immune from the injuries of enemies," we would not be wrong, since it is understood that something was accomplished even by human efforts, but the whole work is to be referred to God as the perfecter, out of gratitude of mind...

^B towards the one who brought it to completion. Thus, since human volition is not sufficient for attaining the end, nor is the running of those who are, as it were, athletes sufficient to receive the prize of the upward calling of God in Christ Jesus—for these things are accomplished while God assists—the statement is well made: «It is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that sheweth mercy.» ^C Just as if, regarding farming, what is also written were said: «I have planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the increase; so that neither is he that planteth any thing, nor he that watereth, but God that giveth the increase.» And the fact that the fruits have become full, we would not piously say is the work of the farmer.

NEW INTERPRETATION.

...accepted; thus, since the will of man does not suffice to attain the end, nor does the course of athletes suffice to win the prize of the heavenly calling in Christ Jesus: for these things are brought to perfection by God’s assistance; it is truly said: «It is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that sheweth mercy.» Just as if what is written concerning agriculture were said: «I have planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the increase.» Thus, neither is he that planteth anything, nor he that watereth, but God who gives the increase. Nor would we piously say that the rich and mature fruits were the work of the farmer or of him who watered, but the work of God: so our perfection is not accomplished by us doing nothing, nor is it completed by us alone, but God brings about the principal part of it. ^D That this may be more manifest, we take an example from the art of navigation. For among the blowing of the winds, the temperance of the air, and the brightness of the stars, each of which contributes something to the safety of those navigating, what place shall we say the art of navigation holds in arriving at the desired port, when often even the sailors themselves do not dare to declare that the ship was saved by them, but attribute whatever there is to God as the author, not because they themselves did nothing, but because that which is done by Providence is far greater than art? Thus, in our salvation, that which is from God is far greater than that which is from our free will. For which reason I think it was said: «It is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that sheweth mercy.» For if this passage of Paul, «It is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that sheweth mercy,» is to be understood in the way that these men think, the commandments are superfluous; in vain does Paul rebuke some because they have collapsed; others, because they have acted well, he approves; in vain he gives laws to the Churches; in vain we embrace better things, in vain we run; but neither does Paul give these commands in vain, nor does he rebuke those and approve these in vain; nor do we embrace good things and strive for better in vain. These, therefore, interpret this passage wrongly.

^A It is not the work of the one who waters, but the work of God; thus, also, our perfection does not come about without our doing anything, but God accomplishes the greater part of it. And that this may be believed more clearly as being what is meant, let us take an example from the art of navigation: for against the blowing of the winds, and the temperateness of the air, and the brightness of the stars, which contribute to the safety of those sailing, how great an account could be named of the art of navigation for the restoration into the harbor, when not even the navigators themselves, out of piety, often dare to confess that they have saved the ship, but refer the whole to God, not ^B because they have performed nothing, but because the contribution of providence is greater by an excessive amount than that of the art! And in the case of our own salvation, the contribution from God is greater by an excessive amount than that which is within our power; for which reason I think it is said, "It is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that showeth mercy." For if we must interpret "It is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that showeth mercy," as they assume, the commandments are superfluous, and Paul himself rebukes some in vain as having fallen, and approves others as having acted rightly, and gives laws to the Churches, and we too offer ourselves in vain to the will for better things, and in vain to run; but Paul does not advise these things in vain, nor does he rebuke these and approve those in vain; nor do we offer ourselves in vain to the will for ^C better things, and to strive for what is excellent. Therefore, those have not understood the things concerning this passage well.

In addition to these, there was [the saying]: "To will and to work is of God." And some say: If to will is from God, and to work is from God, then even if we will or perform something badly, these things have happened to us from God. But if this is so, we are not free. And again, when we will good things and perform more excellent things, since both to will and to work is from God, we have not performed more excellent things, but we have appeared to perform them; these, however, God has given; wherefore we are not free in this either. We must respond that the Apostle did not say that to will evil or to will good, and likewise to do better or worse things, is from God, but universally to will and universally to run. For just as we have from God that we are animals, that we are human beings, so also [we have] that we, generally speaking, as I might say, will, as [we have from Him] that we

are moved. Just as, when we have the [power to] be animals, to be moved, and, for instance, to move these specific limbs—hands or feet—we would not reasonably say that we have the specific [power] from God, that is, the moving *to* strike, or to kill, or to take away the property of others; but rather, we received the generic [power] to be moved from God, while we ourselves use this movement for better or for worse; so, we received the [power of] acting, in that we are animals, from God, and we received the [power of] willing from the Creator; but we use this willing for the best or for the contrary, and likewise with the [power of] acting.

^B Furthermore, [they say] that the apostolic text perplexes us by denying that we have free will, in which [the Apostle], raising an objection against himself, says: "So then He has mercy on whom He wills, and whom He wills He hardens. You will say to me then, 'Why does He still find fault? For who has resisted His will?' Nay but, O man, who are you that replies against God? Will the thing formed say to him who formed it, 'Why have you made me thus?' Or does not the potter have power over the clay, from the same lump to make one vessel for honor and another for dishonor?" ^C For someone will say, "If the potter from the same lump makes some vessels for honor and others for dishonor, so God [makes some] for salvation and others for destruction; it is not up to us to be saved or to perish, and we are not endowed with free will." One must reply to the one who uses these [words] in such a way, if it is possible that the Apostle can

NEW INTERPRETATION

"So then He has mercy on whom He wills, and whom He wills He hardens. You will say to me then: Why does He still find fault? For who has resisted His will? O man, who are you that replies against God? Will the thing formed say to him who formed it: Why have you made me thus? Or does not the potter have power over the clay, from the same lump to make one vessel for honor, and another for dishonor?" For someone will say: "If, just as the potter makes some vessels from the same clay for honor and others for dishonor, so God also [makes some] for salvation and others for perdition; it is not up to us to be saved or to perish, nor are we free." But let us ask the one who receives [the words] in this way, would he dare to think that the Apostle speaks contradiction? I do not think anyone would have such audacity to say so. If, therefore, the Apostle does not speak contradiction, how, according to such a person's interpretation, does he justly accuse him who had fornicated at Corinth, or those who had sinned, and who had not repented of their own lust and intemperance? Also, by what path does he bless those whom he praises as if they acted rightly—the house of Onesiphorus, for example—with these words: "The Lord grant mercy to the house of Onesiphorus; for he often refreshed me, and was not ashamed of my chain; but when he arrived in Rome, he sought me out diligently and found me. The Lord grant him to find mercy from the Lord in that day." Therefore, it does not belong to the same Apostle to [regard] him who has sinned as worthy of reproach,

and to accept him who has done well as praiseworthy; and again, as if nothing were in our power, to say that it is the cause of the Creator that one vessel is for honor and another for dishonor. How does that statement stand, "For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, that each one may receive according to what he has done in the body, whether good or evil"? For what retribution of good is there for the one who could not do evil, having been formed by the Creator for this very thing? Or what punishment will be justly inflicted upon him who could not do good by the very creation of his Maker? Then, furthermore, how is it not contrary to this assertion what he says elsewhere: "But in a great house there are not only vessels of gold and silver, but also of wood and earthenware, some for honor, but some for dishonor. If therefore anyone cleanses himself from these, he will be a vessel for honor, sanctified, and useful to the Lord, prepared for every good work"? ^B Therefore, he who has cleansed himself is made a vessel for honor; he, however, who has neglected to purge his own impurities becomes a vessel for dishonor. From these sentences, by no means, in my opinion, is the Creator the cause of the deeds.

NEW INTERPRETATION

^A For it is possible to refer this thereto. For the Creator God does indeed make one vessel for honor, and He makes other vessels for contumely; but that vessel which has cleansed itself from all impurity, He makes a vessel unto honor; while that which has stained itself with the filth of vices, that vessel He makes unto contumely. And thus it is concluded that it precedes, and that for its own merits each one furnishes to the Creator the causes and occasions for being formed by God either as a vessel unto honor or unto contumely.

If this assertion seems just, as it certainly is just, and consonant with all piety, that from preceding causes each vessel is prepared by God either for honor or for contumely, it does not seem absurd—discussing with the same order and the same consequence as we did the earlier causes—that we should think the same concerning the nature of souls, and that this should be the cause why Jacob was beloved before he was born into this world, and Esau was hated while he was yet in his mother’s womb. ^B And let us understand that she acted of old for that reason, whereby she was beloved in the one and hated in the other before she supplanted in Jacob’s body, and before the plant was held by the brother in Esau.

^C But it is clearly shown that, so far as concerns the underlying nature, just as clay lies subject to the potter, from which mass vessels are made for honor and for contumely, so, all souls being of one nature subject to God, and—if I may so say—one mass of rational substances, God has caused certain prior reasons to make these to be for honor, and these for contumely. But if the Apostle’s speech is rebuke, saying: "Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God?" ^D I think that he teaches that he who possesses boldness before God, and is faithful and has lived well, would not hear, "Who art thou that repliest against God?" Such as was Moses; for Moses spoke, and God answered him with a voice. And as God answers to Moses, so the saint answers to God. But he who has not acquired such boldness, clearly having either lost it, or not seeking concerning these things with the zeal of learning but of contention, and therefore saying: "Why does He yet find fault? For who resists His will?"—he surely will have been worthy of this rebuke: ^A "O man, who art thou that repliest against God?" But to those who introduce diverse natures and use the saying of the Apostle, these things must be said: If they hold that those who perish and those who are saved are of one and the same mass, and that one and the same is the Maker of both; if He is good who makes not only the spiritual but also the earthly (for hence this follows), it can surely happen that he who now, through certain past good works, has been made a vessel of honor, if he...

does not perform deeds similar and consistent with the vessel of honor, may become in another age a vessel of dishonor; just as, conversely, it is possible for one who through causes prior to this life has become a vessel of dishonor here, by amending himself, to become in the new creation a vessel of honor, sanctified, and useful to the Lord, prepared for every good work. And perhaps the Israelites of the present time, not having lived worthily of their nobility, shall fall away from their lineage, transformed as it were from vessels of honor into a vessel of dishonor; and many of those who are now Egyptians and Idumeans, having approached Israel, when they have brought forth more abundant fruit, shall enter into the Church of the Lord, no longer reckoned as Egyptians and Idumeans, but becoming Israelites; so that in this way, according to the varying inclinations of the will, some may advance from worse to better, others may fall from better to worse, while others may be kept in their good state or ascend from good to better, and others again may remain in their evils or, as their wickedness is poured forth from evils, become worse.

ORIGEN ON FIRST PRINCIPLES

^A ...responded to him with a voice; and as God responds to Moses, so does every holy person respond to God. But he who is unfaithful, and loses before God the confidence to answer due to the unworthiness of his own life and conduct, and who does not seek these things in order to learn and improve, but out of contentiousness and to resist; and to speak more clearly, he who is such a person as can say the things which the Apostle signifies when he says: "Why then does he still find fault? For who can resist his will?" [Rom. IX, 19] — to such a person this rebuke of the Apostle is rightly directed: "O man, who are you to answer back to God?" [Rom. IX, 20]. Therefore, this rebuke is intended not for the faithful and the saints, but for the unfaithful and the impious.

To those, however, who introduce diverse natures of souls and drag this apostolic discourse to the assertion of their own dogma, one must respond in this way: If it is certain even among them that, as the Apostle says, those who are being destroyed and those who are being saved are made from one lump, and that the Creator of those who are saved is also the Creator of those who are destroyed, and if he who makes the spiritual is also good—and not only the spiritual but also the earthly (for this follows for them)—it can surely happen that he who now, through prior good works, has become a vessel of honor, if he has not done deeds that are equal or consistent with the vessel of honor, may become in another age a vessel of dishonor. ^B Just as, conversely, it is possible that one who, through causes prior to this present life, has become a vessel of dishonor here, having amended himself, may in the new creation become a vessel of honor, sanctified and useful to the Lord, prepared for every good work. And perhaps the current Israelites, not having lived worthily of their nobility, shall fall away from the race, transformed as if from vessels of honor into a vessel of dishonor; and many of those who are now Egyptians and Idumeans, having approached Israel, when they have brought forth fruit more abundantly, shall enter into the Church of the Lord, no longer considered as Egyptians and Idumeans, but becoming Israelites.

Thus, according to this, through various inclinations of the will, some progress from worse to better, others fall from better to worse, and others are kept in their good qualities, or ascend from good to better, while others again remain in their evils, or from evils—as their wickedness overflows—become worse.

^C 136 According to our own assertion, by which we say that from preceding causes God makes vessels either to honor or to dishonor, the approval of God’s justice is in no way restricted. For it is possible that this vessel which, from prior causes, has been fashioned in this world to honor, if it acts more negligently, may, according to the merits of its conduct, be made in another age a vessel to dishonor; and conversely, that vessel which from prior fault received the name of dishonor, if it should wish to be corrected in the present life, in the new creation shall become a vessel sanctified and useful to the Lord, and ready for every good work. So also, if anyone, because of preceding causes in this life, has been fashioned by the Creator as a vessel of dishonor, and has amended himself and purged himself from all filth of vices, he can be made in that new age a vessel to honor, sanctified and useful, prepared for every good work. Finally, those who in this age were fashioned by God to be as Israelites, and have led a life unworthy of the nobility of their race, and have fallen from all the generosity of their family, these, in a certain manner, because of their unbelief, shall pass from being vessels of honor into dishonor in another age.

NEW INTERPRETATION

^B Hence, one must also believe it possible that some who first began with small sins spread into such wickedness and arrive at such a stage of evil that they become equal to the powers of malice and the opposing forces; and, on the other hand, if through many severe inflictions of punishments they attempt to recover and gradually seek a remedy for their wounds, it is possible for them, once their malice ceases, to be restored to good. From this we opine, since, as we have frequently said, the soul is immortal and eternal, that in many and endless spaces throughout vast and various ages it is possible that it might descend from the highest good to the lowest evils, or be restored from the ultimate evils to the highest goods. ^C

Version of St. Jerome

I believe that it is possible for some men, beginning from small vices, to arrive at such great wickedness (if, however, they are unwilling to turn to better things and amend their sins through penitence) so that they even become opposing strengths; and again, that others, from being enemies and opposite virtues, might for a long time apply medicine to their wounds and bind up their previously flowing offenses, so that they pass over to the place of the best. We have often said that in the infinite and perpetual ages in which the soul subsists and lives, some of them thus fall to worse states, so that they hold the ultimate place of malice; and some thus progress, so that from the ultimate grade of malice they come to a perfect and consummate virtue.

^A 22. But since the Apostle’s discourse, in those things which he says regarding vessels of honor or dishonor—because "If any man purge himself, he shall be a vessel unto honor, sanctified and useful to the Lord, and prepared unto every good work" (II Tim. II, 21)—appears to have placed nothing in God, but the whole in us; yet in those things where he says, "Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto honor, and another unto dishonor," he appears to have referred everything to God; these things are not to be taken as contrary to each other, but both senses are to be called to one, and from the two, a single understanding must be fashioned: that is, that we should neither think that those things which are in our own power can be brought about without the help of God, nor that those things which are in the hand of God can be brought to completion without our own actions, and studies, and purpose. That is to say, neither is our willing or effecting anything so within our own power that we should not know that this very thing—that we are able to will or to effect—has been given to us by God according to that distinction which we mentioned above. Or again, when God fashions the vessels, some indeed to honor and others to dishonor, it must be thought that the causes of honor or dishonor are not, as it were, the matter...

New Interpretation

22. But since the Apostle sometimes does not ascribe to God what the vessel is, whether for honor or dishonor, but refers the whole to us when he says: "If any man therefore shall have purged himself, he shall be a vessel unto honor, sanctified, useful to the Lord, and prepared unto every good work"; and sometimes does not grant it to us, but appears to ascribe the whole to God when he says: "Hath not the potter power over the clay, to make out of the same lump one vessel indeed for honor, and another for dishonor," ^B and the things said by him are not contradictions; both are to be brought together, and one complete account is to be rendered from both. Neither does that which is in our power, without the knowledge of God, nor does the knowledge of God compel us to progress, unless we also contribute something of our own toward the good; nor does that which is in our power, without the knowledge of God and the use of that which is in our power according to merit—which makes one to become for honor or for dishonor—nor does the One at God’s disposal alone construct one for honor or for dishonor, unless it finds some material of difference in our own resolve, inclining toward the worse or toward the better. And let these things be sufficiently set forth for us concerning free will.

certain wills, purposes, or merits of our own, from which it fashions the vessel of each of us either for honor or for dishonor, while the very impulse of the soul or the purpose of the mind suggests to Him who is not unaware of the heart and thought of the soul, whether its vessel ought to be fashioned for honor or for dishonor. But let these things suffice us, as we have been able to discuss the questions of free will.

Chapter II. Of Contrary Powers.

1. We must now see, according to the Scriptures, how contrary powers, or the devil himself, struggle against the human race, provoking and inciting them to sin. And first, indeed, in Genesis, the serpent is described ^A as having seduced Eve; concerning whom, in the *Ascension of Moses*, which scroll the Apostle Jude mentions in his Epistle, the Archangel Michael, disputing with the devil about the body of Moses, says that the serpent, inspired by the devil, was the cause of the transgression of Adam and Eve. But it is also asked by some, who is the angel that speaks from heaven to Abraham, saying: "Now I know that you fear God, and have not spared your beloved son, whom you loved for my sake." For he is manifestly described as an angel, who says he knew at that time that Abraham feared God and would not have spared his beloved son, just as the Scripture says: yet he did not declare that it was for God, but for himself—that is, for him who was saying this. We must also inquire about that which is said in Exodus, that he wished to kill Moses because he was going into Egypt. And again, who is the angel called the "exterminator"? And who is he who in Leviticus is written as the *Apopompaeus*, that is, the "sender away," of whom the Scripture speaks thus: "One lot for the Lord, and one lot for the *Apopompaeus*, that is, for the sender away"? Further, in the first book of Kings, an evil spirit is said to stifle Saul. And in the third book, Micaiah the prophet says: ^B "I saw the Lord, the God of Israel, sitting upon His throne, and all the host of heaven standing about Him on His right hand and on His left. And the Lord said, 'Who shall seduce Ahab, king of Israel, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth Gilead?' And this one said this, and that one said that. A spirit went forth and stood before the Lord and said, 'I will seduce him.' And the Lord said to him, 'By what means?' And he said, 'I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets.' And He said, 'You shall seduce him, and indeed you shall prevail. Go out, therefore, and do so.' And now the Lord has put a lying spirit in the mouth of all your prophets; the Lord has spoken evil concerning you." By this it is manifestly shown that it was by his own will and purpose that a certain spirit chose to seduce, and acted with deceit, by which God allowed him to be abused for the death of Ahab, who was worthy to suffer this. In the first book of Chronicles, too, it is said: "The devil, Satan, rose up in Israel and incited David to number the people." In the Psalms, moreover, an evil angel is said to afflict certain ones. In Ecclesiastes also, Solomon says: ^C "If the spirit of one having power rise up against you, do not leave your place, for healing will suppress many sins." In Zechariah, indeed, we read of the devil standing at the right hand of Jesus and resisting him. Isaiah also says that the sword of the Lord rises up against the dragon, the perverting serpent. But what shall I say of Ezekiel, in the second vision, who prophesies most manifestly against the prince of Tyre regarding the contrary power, who he even says dwells in the rivers of Egypt? Moreover, what else does the whole book which is written about Job contain but the story of the devil requesting that power be given to him over all that Job has, and his children, and further over his body? Yet he is defeated by his patience. In which book the Lord taught many things in His responses concerning the power of this dragon that opposes us. These things, for the present,

New Interpretation

something for honor, and something for dishonor, and these do not fight with each other: both must be reconciled, and from them one perfect sense is to be fashioned. Neither does our freedom exist without the knowledge of God, nor does the knowledge of God compel us to profit unless we contribute something of our own to the good; since neither does our freedom work without the knowledge of God and the use of the dignity of our free will, so that one may happen to be for honor or dishonor; nor does the will of God alone make anyone for honor or dishonor unless it has some matter of difference, [namely] our own will, which inclines toward the worse or the better. But let these things suffice us regarding the freedom of the will.

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BOOK THREE

From the Old Testament, as far as my memory can now reach, let these things suffice concerning that which is mentioned regarding the contrary powers, or those said to be adversaries to the human race, to be weighed afterward. Let us look also at the New Testament, where Satan approaches the Savior, tempting Him. But the evil spirits and unclean demons, who had possessed some, were put to flight by the Savior from the bodies of the sufferers, who are said to have been delivered by Him. And even Judas, when the devil had already put it into his heart that he should betray Christ, later received the whole of Satan into himself: for it is written that after the morsel, Satan entered into him. The apostle Paul, indeed, teaches us that we ought not to give place to the devil, "but put on," he says, "the armor of God, that you may be able to resist the deceits of the devil"; designating that our wrestling is not "against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the world-rulers of this darkness, against spiritual wickedness in the heavenly places." And he says that the Savior was also crucified by the princes of this world who will be destroyed, whose wisdom he also says he does not speak. Through all these things, therefore, divine Scripture teaches us that there are certain invisible enemies battling against us, and it commands that we must be armed against them. Whence also any simpler among those who believe in the Lord Christ suppose that all sins, whatsoever men have committed, happen because these contrary powers are pressing upon the mind of the offenders, for the reason that in this invisible struggle these powers are found to be superior. Because if, for example, the devil did not exist, no one at all among men would sin.

2. We do not, however, think that this is so, if we look at those things which manifestly descend from bodily necessity. For are we to think that the devil is the cause of our hungering or thirsting? No one would dare to affirm this. If, therefore, he is not the cause of our hungering and thirsting, what else is it, when each person’s age reaches the time of manhood, and it suggests the incentives of natural heat? It follows without doubt that, just as the devil is not the cause of hungering and thirsting, so too he is not the cause of those motions which are naturally suggested to an adult age, that is, the desire for the appetite of intercourse. Since it is certain that this cause is not always moved by the devil, so one must not think that if the devil did not exist, bodies would not have the desire for such intermingling. Then let us next consider whether, as we showed above, food is sought by men not from the devil, but by a certain natural appetite, and whether it could happen that if the devil did not exist, human experience would use such discipline in taking food that it would never thoroughly exceed the measure—that is, that it would never take more than the situation required, nor more than reason allowed, and it would never happen that men would fail in keeping the mode and measure of their food. I, for my part, do not think that this could have been kept by men in such a way, even if no instigation of the devil had provoked it, that no one would have exceeded the mode and discipline in taking food, before they had learned it by long use and experience. What is it, therefore? In food and drink, indeed, it was possible to sin even without the devil's incitements, if perhaps we were found to be less continent or less industrious; but in desiring intercourse, or in tempering natural desires, it must be thought that the same result would not have occurred? I think, however, that the same consequence of reason can also be understood in other natural motions: of greed, or anger, or sadness, or in everything at all that exceeds the mode of natural measure through the vice of intemperance. It is evident, therefore, that the reason is this: just as in good things human intent by itself is imperfect for the consummation of the good, for it is led to all perfect things by divine aid; so also, in contrary things, we receive certain beginnings and, as it were, certain seeds of sins from those things which are naturally in use. But when we have indulged more than is sufficient, and have not resisted, an enemy power, taking the place of the first transgression, instigates and presses on in every way, striving to spread sins more profusely, and indeed while we ourselves, as human beings, provide the occasions and beginnings of sins, the enemy powers propagate them more widely and at greater length, and if it is possible, without any end. And so, finally, a lapse into avarice occurs, when at first men desire a little bit of money, then as the vice grows, the greed increases. After this, when a blindness of mind from the passion has also followed, with the enemy powers suggesting and pressing on, money is no longer desired, but is snatched, and is sought by force, or even by the shedding of human blood. Lastly, for a more certain assurance of the matter, that these immensities of vices come from demons, it can be easily contemplated from the fact that those who are physically vexed by demons suffer nothing less than those who are pressed by immoderate loves, or the intemperance of anger, or the excess of sadness. For it is reported in some histories that some have fallen into insanity out of love, others out of

irascibility, and some from sadness or excessive joy; which I think happens because those contrary powers, that is, the demons, having found a place for themselves in their minds, which intemperance has previously laid open, have taken complete possession of their senses; especially when no glory of virtue urges them to resist.

3. But that some sins do not come from contrary powers, but take their beginning from the natural movements of the body, the Apostle Paul declares most clearly when he says: "The flesh lusts against the spirit, and the spirit against the flesh; these are what resist one another, so that you do not do the things that you would." If, therefore, the flesh lusts against the spirit, and the spirit against the flesh, we sometimes have a struggle against flesh and blood, that is, when we are human and walk according to the flesh, and when we cannot be tempted by greater temptations than human ones, as it is said of us: "No temptation has overtaken you except what is human. And God is faithful, who will not permit you to be tempted above what you are able [to bear]." For just as those who preside over the games do not allow those who come to the contest to enter the lists just anyhow or by chance, but by diligent examination—as they observe either their bodies or their ages—pairing them with one another in the most equitable comparison, for example, boys with boys, men with men, who match in terms of age or strength; so it must be understood also of divine providence, that He dispenses to all who have descended into these struggles of human life with the most just moderation, according to the reason of each person's virtue, which He alone, who alone beholds the hearts of men, knows. Thus, one person contends against such flesh, another against such, and one for such a time, another for such a time, and so that one is instigated by the flesh for this thing or that, and another for another; and then that one resists this or that hostile power, while another resists two or three simultaneously, or now against one, now again against another, and at a certain time against one, and at a certain time against another, or after what deeds they fight against which ones, and after which ones against others. For observe whether by any chance something of this kind is indicated by what the Apostle says: "God is faithful, who will not allow you to be tempted above what you are able," that is, for the reason that each is tempted according to the measure of his virtue or possibility. ^B Yet, because we have said that each is tempted according to the measure of his virtue, it should not therefore be thought that he who is tempted ought to conquer in every way; just as that person who competes in the contest, though matched with his adversary with equal moderation, will not be able to conquer in every way. But unless the virtue of the contestants is equal, the victory will not be a just prize, nor will the vanquished be justly blamed, because He indeed permits us to be tempted, yet not above what we can endure; ^C for we are tempted according to our strength; nor, however, is it written that He will make in the temptation even an exit of endurance, but an exit [of such a nature] that we may be able to endure. But the fulfillment of this, to carry it out either strenuously or sluggishly, depends upon us, for which He Himself gave us the ability. For there is no doubt that in every temptation, the virtue of endurance is present for us, if only we use the granted virtue appropriately. For it is not the same thing to have the virtue of conquering and to conquer, just as the Apostle himself signaled in very careful language, saying that "God will give the exit so that you may be able to endure," not "so that you may endure." For many do not endure, but are conquered in the temptation. It is given by God, however, not that we may endure—otherwise the struggle would seem to be nothing—but that we may be able to endure. But we use that virtue that has been given to us so that we may be able to conquer, according to the faculty of free will, either industriously and we conquer; or sluggishly, and we are overcome. For if this whole thing were given to us so that we might conquer in every way, and in no way be conquered, what cause for striving would remain for him who cannot be conquered? Or what merit of the prize is there, where the faculty of resisting and conquering is taken away? But if the possibility of conquering is provided equally to all of us, but it is placed in our power how we ought to use this possibility—that is, either industriously or sluggishly—the fault of the conquered or the prize of the victor will be just. Therefore, from these things which have been argued according to our strength, I think it has evidently appeared that there are certain sins which we do not commit by the pressing of malignant powers, while others there are by which we are provoked to a certain excess and immoderation at their instigation. Whence it is consequent now to inquire how these contrary powers themselves work these very incitements in us.

4. Thoughts that proceed from our own hearts, either from the memory of any deeds or the contemplation of any affairs, we find sometimes proceed from ourselves, sometimes are stirred up by contrary powers; ^D sometimes also they are sent by God or by the holy angels. But that these things are so will perhaps seem fabulous, unless it has been proved by the testimonies of the divine Scripture. That a thought, therefore, may arise from ourselves, David...

^A testifies in the Psalms, saying: "For the thought of man will confess to you, and the remnants of the thought will keep a holy day to you." That it also commonly happens from contrary powers, Solomon testifies in Ecclesiastes in this way: "If the spirit of the one having power rise up against you, do not leave your place; for health restrains many sins." And the apostle Paul will give testimony concerning the same, saying: "Destroying thoughts, and every high thing that exalts itself against the knowledge of Christ." That it happens from God, David nevertheless testifies in the Psalms, saying: "Blessed is the man whose support is with you, O Lord, his ascent is in his heart." And the Apostle says that "God gave" into the heart of Titus. Indeed, that certain things are suggested to human hearts, whether by good or evil angels, is designated ^B by Tobias being accompanied by an angel, or the word of the prophet saying: "And the angel who spoke in me answered;" but also the book of the Shepherd declares these same things, saying that two angels accompany every individual person; and if good thoughts rise up in our heart, it says they are suggested by the good angel; if, however, they are contrary, it says they are the instinct of an evil angel. Barnabas also declares the same in his Epistle, when he says there are two ways, one of light, the other of darkness, over which he also says certain angels preside: the angels of God over the way of light, and the angels of Satan over the way of darkness. Nevertheless, one must think that nothing else happens to us from these things that are suggested to our heart by good or evil spirits, except for a mere commotion and incitement provoking us either ^C to good or evil. It is, however, possible for us, when an evil power begins to incite us to evil, to cast away from us the depraved suggestions, and to resist the worst persuasions, and to do nothing at all in a blameworthy way. ^D And again, it is possible that when a divine power has provoked us to better things, we might not follow, with the power of free will preserved in both cases. We were indeed saying in what preceded that certain things are suggested to our memory, whether of good or evil things, whether through divine providence or through contrary powers; as is shown in the book of Esther, when Ahasuerus had not remembered the kindnesses of the most just Mordecai, and, fatigued by nocturnal vigils, had received from God the memory to seek the records of deeds committed to writing; in which, being admonished of the kindnesses of Mordecai, he ordered his enemy Haman to be hanged; but to the man himself he conferred magnificent honors, and safety to the people now threatened with danger. On the other hand, through the contrary power of the devil, one must think that it was suggested to the memory of the chief priests and scribes what they said coming to Pilate: "Lord, we have remembered how that seducer said, while he was yet alive, that, After the third day I will rise again." But also what Judas thought regarding the betrayal of the Lord Savior did not come from the malice of his own mind alone. For Scripture has testified that "the devil had already put into his heart to betray him." On account of which Solomon also rightly gave orders, saying: "With all diligence keep your heart." And the apostle Paul says: "We ought to give more earnest heed to the things which we have heard, lest at any time we should let them slip." And when he says: "Do not give place to the devil," showing by this that by a certain work, or by a certain sloth of mind, a place is given to the devil, so that if once he has entered our heart, he either takes possession of us, or certainly at least defiles the soul if he cannot possess it completely, when he throws his fiery darts at us; by which we are sometimes wounded with the wound descending deep, while at other times we are only inflamed. Certainly, these his fiery darts are extinguished in few and rarely, so that they do not find a place for a wound, that is, when one has been covered with the most fortified and strongest shield of faith. But what was said in the Epistle to the Ephesians: "For we do not have a struggle against flesh and blood, but against principalities and powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places;" it will be necessary to understand what he said: "to us"—that is, to me, Paul, and to you, Ephesians, and to whosoever there is no struggle with flesh and blood. For their struggle is against principalities and powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, not as it was for the Corinthians, for whom the struggle was still against flesh and blood, whom temptation had not seized except that which is human. [There are those] who struggle against all these things. For I judge it impossible for any of men, however holy he may be, that he could have a struggle against all these things at once. But if by any means that could happen, which certainly cannot happen, it is impossible that human nature could bear it at all without its greatest subversion; but just as, for example, if some fifty soldiers were to say that there threatened them certain...

others, fifty in number, it is not to be understood that one of them is to fight against fifty, but each one of them rightly says that the contest we have is against fifty, yet all of them against all; so also must it be understood what the Apostle says, that for all the athletes and soldiers of Christ the struggle and contest is against all those things that have been enumerated; both for all collectively, and yet for each individually, whether in the future contest, or surely as it shall have been approved by the just arbiter of the struggle itself, God. For I think that there is a certain measure to human nature, even if it be that Paul of whom it is said: "He is a chosen vessel unto me"; or Peter, against whom the gates of hell do not prevail; or if it be Moses, that friend of God, no one of whom could at all endure the whole array of hostile powers at once without some injury to himself, unless the virtue of that One alone were working in him who said: "Take courage, I have overcome the world." Because of whom Paul also confidently said: "I can do all things in Him who strengthens me, Christ." And again: "But I have laboured more abundantly than they all, but not I, but the grace of God with me." Because of this virtue, therefore, which certainly is not human, working and speaking in him, Paul said: "For I am certain that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor virtue, nor any other creature shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord." For I do not think that human nature by itself could have a contest against angels, and things high and low, and other creatures; but when it has perceived the Lord present in it and dwelling within, confident in the divine aid it will say: "The Lord is my light and my salvation, whom shall I fear? The Lord is the protector of my life, of whom shall I be afraid? When the wicked approach upon me to eat my flesh, my enemies who trouble me, they themselves were weakened and fell. If camps should stand against me, my heart shall not fear; if battle should rise against me, in this I will hope." Whence I think that perhaps a man can never of himself overcome a hostile power, unless he has used divine aid. Whence also the angel is said to have wrestled with Jacob. Which we indeed understand in this way, that it is not the same thing for the angel to have wrestled with Jacob as it is to be against Jacob; but he who was present for the sake of his salvation, who also, ^B having known his progress, even gave him the name Israel, he is the one who wrestles with him; that is, he is in the struggle with him, and helps him in the contest; since there was without doubt another against whom he was fighting, and against whom the contest was being waged for him. Finally, Paul did not say that we have a struggle against princes or against powers, but "against principalities and powers." Whence, even if Jacob wrestled, he doubtless wrestled against some of these virtues, which Paul declares to be hostile to the human race, and especially to the saints, and to stir up contests. Therefore, Scripture finally says of him that he "wrestled with an angel, and prevailed unto God"; so that, indeed, the struggle of the contest might be supported by the angel's aid, but the palm of perfection might lead the victor to God.

^C 6. And it should not be thought that contests of this kind are carried out with the strength of bodies and exercises of the art of wrestling, but that it is a battle of spirit against spirit, just as Paul denotes that the struggle for us is against principalities, and powers, and the rulers of the darkness of this world. But the very nature of the contests is to be understood in this way: when losses, when dangers, when reproaches, when accusations are stirred up against us, it is not that we suffer these things only because of the hostile powers acting upon them, but that through them we may be provoked to great anger, or to excessive sadness, or to final despair; or, what is even more serious, that we may be compelled, weary and overcome by tedium, to complain against God, as if He were not moderating human life fairly and justly; so that through this we may be made weak in faith, or fall from hope, or be forced to be carried away from the truth of the dogmas, and be persuaded to think ^D something impious concerning God. For such things indeed are written concerning Job, when the devil had asked of God the power over his goods. By which we are also taught that we are not assailed by any chance incursions, if at any time such losses of possessions strike us, nor does it happen by chance that any of our own is led away captive, or that the ruins of houses in which any of our dear ones are crushed, occur; in all of which every one of the faithful ought to say, because "You would not have power against me, unless it were given you from above." See, indeed, that the house of Job would not have fallen upon his children unless the devil had first received power against them; nor would the horsemen have rushed in in divided ranks to seize his camels, or oxen, and other animals, unless urged on by that spirit to whom they had enslaved themselves by the obedience of their own intent. But not even he who seemed

fire, or what is thought to be lightning, had fallen upon the flocks of Job, before the devil said to God: "Hast Thou not hedged about all things that are without, and the rest? But now put forth Thy hand, and touch all that he hath, and he will curse Thee to Thy face."

7. From all of which it is shown that all things which occur in this world, which are considered middle things, whether they be sad or in whatever way they exist, do not indeed come from God, yet they do not occur without God; for while God does not only not forbid, but even permits the malignant and contrary powers to effect such things, yet He does so at certain times and for certain persons; just as it is said in the case of Job himself, that at a certain time he was prepared to fall under the power of others, and for his house to be despoiled by the unrighteous. Therefore, Divine Scripture teaches us to receive all things that happen to us as if brought by God, knowing that without God nothing happens. But how can we doubt that these things are so—that is, that nothing happens without God—when the Lord and Saviour proclaims and says: "Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing, and not one of them shall fall upon the ground without your Father who is in heaven"? But necessity has led us to wander somewhat further in discussing the struggle of the adverse powers, which they wage against men, and concerning those sadder things which happen to the human race, that is, the temptations of this life, as Job says: "Is not the whole life of man upon earth a temptation?" so that it might be more clearly manifested how these things occur, and how piously one ought to feel concerning them. Now let us see how men fall even into the sin of false knowledge, or with what design the contrary powers are accustomed to stir up battles against us even concerning these things.

CHAPTER III. Concerning threefold wisdom.

1. Desiring to teach us something great and hidden concerning knowledge and wisdom, the holy ^A Apostle says in his First Epistle to the Corinthians: "But we speak wisdom among the perfect; yet not the wisdom of this world, nor of the princes of this world who come to naught; but we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, hidden, which God foreordained before the worlds unto our glory, which none of the princes of this world knew; for had they known it, they would never have crucified the Lord of glory." In which, wishing to show the differences of wisdoms, he writes that there is a certain wisdom of this world, and ^B that there is a certain wisdom of the princes of this world, and that there is another ^C wisdom of God. But when he says, "The wisdom of the princes of this world," I do not think he means some common wisdom of all the princes of this world, but rather the particular wisdom of individual princes seems to me to be indicated. And again when he says: "But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, hidden, which God foreordained before the worlds unto our glory," we must inquire if he calls this the same wisdom of God which was hidden from other times and generations, and was not made known to the sons of men, as it is now revealed to His holy apostles and prophets, which was also the wisdom of God before the advent of the Saviour, by which Solomon was wise; and that there is something more than Solomon, the discourse of the Saviour Himself teaches, when it says: "And behold, ^D more than Solomon is here." In which it is shown that those who were taught by the Saviour were taught something more than Solomon had known. For if someone should say that the Saviour indeed knew more, yet did not teach other more numerous things than Solomon, how will it be fitting, and consequently it will be thought that even that which He says in the subsequent verses is stated: "The Queen of the South shall rise in the judgment, and shall condemn the men of this generation, because she came from the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon, and behold, more than Solomon is here." There is, therefore, a wisdom of this world; there is also a wisdom belonging, perhaps, to the individual princes of this world. But concerning that one wisdom of God, we judge it to be indicated that it operated indeed less in the earlier and ancient times, but was revealed more fully and clearly through Christ. Truly, we shall inquire concerning the wisdom of God in its proper places.

2. Now, since there is at hand a treatise on the contrary powers, regarding how they also move those struggles by which false knowledge is inserted into human minds, and souls are seduced while they think they have found wisdom, I think it necessary to state and distinguish what the wisdom of this world is, and what the wisdom of the princes of this world is, so that through this we may be able to discern who are the fathers of this wisdom, nay rather, of these wisdoms. I believe, therefore, as we have said above, that the wisdom of this world is something other than those wisdoms which are of the princes of this world, through which wisdom those things are seen to be understood and comprehended which are of this world. Which, however, has nothing in itself, so that it might be able to [comprehend] anything either of the Divinity or of the reason of the world.

^A For when the leaders of a heresy themselves first receive an error of false doctrine in place of truth, and have judged this to be the truth among themselves, then at last they try to persuade others also of the same things which they have deemed to be true among themselves; so it must be thought that the princes of this world also do, in which world certain spiritual virtues have received the principality of certain [(62)] nations, and for this reason have been called princes of this world. There are, moreover, other particular 144 certain [(63)] energies [(64)] of this world besides these princes, that is, certain spiritual virtues, working certain things which they themselves, according to the liberty of their own will, chose to perform; ^B from among whom are these princes who work the wisdom of this world, or [who work] concerning any higher matters, or concerning the institution of a good and happy life; but it is of such a nature, for example, as is every art, whether poetical, or grammatical, or rhetorical, or geometrical, or musical, with which perhaps medicine should also be counted. In all these, the wisdom of this world must be understood to exist. But we understand the wisdom of the princes of this world to be, for example, the secrets of the Egyptians, as they say, and their occult philosophy, and the astrology of the Chaldeans and of the Indians [(58)], who make promises concerning the knowledge of the Most High, but also the multiple and varied opinion of the Greeks concerning the Divinity. Therefore, in the holy Scriptures, we find that there are princes over individual nations, just as we read in Daniel of a certain prince of the kingdom of the Persians [(59)], and another prince of the kingdom of the Greeks, and that they are not men, but certain virtues, ^C is clearly shown by the consequence of the reading itself. But also in the prophet Ezekiel, the prince of Tyre is most manifestly designated as a certain spiritual virtue [(21)]. These, then, and others of this kind, each holding their own wisdoms and building up their own dogmas and varied opinions, when they saw our Lord and Savior promising and preaching that He had come into this world for this purpose, to destroy all those things which were dogmas of the knowledge falsely so-called, for fear that they might be inwardly covered, not knowing, they laid snares for Him: "For the kings of the earth stood up, and the princes assembled together against the Lord and against His Christ [(22)]." When their snares were known, and those things which they had plotted against the Son of God were understood, when they crucified the Lord of glory, the Apostle says: "We speak wisdom among the perfect, yet not the wisdom of this world, nor of the princes of this world who are coming to nothing, which none of the princes of this world knew. For if they had known, they would never have crucified the Lord of glory [(23)]."

3. It should indeed be inquired whether these wisdoms of the princes of this world, with which they try to imbue men, are introduced to men by adverse virtues with a design of ensnaring and harming, or whether they are employed only for the sake of causing error; that is, not with the intention of harming a man, but because these princes of this world *themselves* judge these things to be true, and therefore desire to teach others also what they themselves think to be true [(61)]; which, indeed, I rather think. For just as, for example, authors of the Greeks, or any ^D of the princes of this world with which they try to imbue men, are introduced to men by opposing virtues with a design of ensnaring and harming, or whether they are employed only for the sake of error; that is, not with a view to harming a man, but because these princes of this world themselves judge these things to be true, and therefore desire to teach others what they themselves think to be true, for example, that there might be a certain proper energy and virtue, which might inspire poetry, another which might inspire geometry, and so each might urge on each of the individual arts and disciplines of this kind [(65)]. Finally, very many of the Greeks have opined that the poetic art cannot exist without madness: whence also it is related in their histories that those whom they call prophets were suddenly filled with the spirit of a certain madness. But what, then, is to be said of those also whom they call divine, by whom, through the inoperation [(66)] of the demons who rule over them, responses are produced in verses of artistic meter? But even those whom they call magi or malefics, with demons invited, have sometimes made those verses, by invoking the demons over boys who are still of tender age, to speak amazing and stupendous poems to everyone. These things must be thought to be done in this way, because just as holy and immaculate souls, if they have vowed themselves to God with all affection and all purity, and have kept themselves from all contagion of demons, and have purified themselves through much abstinence, and have been imbued with pious and religious disciplines [(67)], they acquire for this reason a participation in the Divinity, and deserve the grace of prophecy and of other divine gifts; so it must be thought that those also, who show themselves opportune to contrary virtues, that is, by industry of life, or by a study friendly and acceptable [(68)] to them, receive their inspiration, and become participants of their wisdom and doctrine. From which it comes about that they are filled with the inoperations of those whose service they first subjected themselves to. The rule of the Scriptures allows [it], and it is not idle to observe whether they are moved by an insidious design against the Christ—

Chapter IV - Concerning Human Temptations

^A ...fable-like and impious dogmas have been fabricated by the contrary powers, while supporting their own faith; or if indeed, even having heard the word of Christ, being unable either to vomit it forth from the secrets of their own conscience or to retain it purely and holily, they have introduced various errors against the rule of the Christian truth through vessels that were opportune for them, and, so to speak, through their own prophets. And it is more to be thought that those apostate and fugitive powers, which have retreated from God, out of the very wickedness of their own mind and purpose, or out of envy toward those to whom the truth is known—from that rank from which they themselves have fallen—prepare ascents in order to hinder progressions of this kind, and fabricate these errors of false doctrine and deceptions.

Manifestly, therefore, and by many proofs it is demonstrated that the human soul, while it is in this body, can receive various energies, that is, operations of diverse spirits, both evil and good. And of the evil ones, there is a twofold species, that is, either when they possess the mind thoroughly and entirely, such that they do not permit those whom they have obsessed to understand or feel anything at all—as is the example of those whom the common people call possessed, whom we see to be mad and insane, such as those who are reported in the Gospel to have been cured by the Savior; or when they deprave the sensing and intelligent soul with various and sinister persuasions through an inimical suggestion: as for example is Judas, who was provoked to the crime of betrayal by the injection of the devil, just as the Scripture declares, saying: *“When the devil had already put into the heart of Judas Iscariot that he should betray him.”*

^B But one receives the energy, that is, the operation, of good spirits when one is moved and provoked to good things, and is inspired to heavenly or divine things; just as holy angels and God himself has worked in the prophets, provoking and encouraging them with holy suggestions toward better things; so indeed that it might remain in the free will and judgment of man whether he wishes to follow or not follow the one prompting him toward heavenly and divine things. Hence, from this manifest discernment, it is known how the soul is moved by the presence of a better spirit, that is, if it incurs absolutely no confusion or alienation of mind from the imminent aspiration, and does not lose the free judgment of its own will; as are the examples of all the prophets or the apostles, who ministered to divine responses without any confusion of mind.

^A Therefore, we have already taught in the preceding pages, when we made mention of Mordecai and Artaxerxes, that the human memory is provoked to the remembrance of better things by the suggestions of good spirits.

5. But this also, I think, should be consistently sought: from what causes the human soul is moved now by these, now by other virtues, toward different things. ^B Whose causes I suspect to be certain ones existing even before this corporeal birth, just as John denotes, bounding and exulting in the womb of his mother when the voice of the salutation of Mary reached the ears of Elizabeth his mother; and as Jeremiah the prophet declares, who before he was formed in his mother's womb was known to God, and before he proceeded from the womb was sanctified by him, and yet a child, he received the grace of prophecy.

145 And conversely, it is manifestly shown that some are possessed from the first stage of life, that is, some are born with the very demon, while others are declared by the faith of histories to have practiced divination from childhood. Others have suffered from the first age that which they call the Python, that is, a ventriloquist. For all these, by those who assert that all things in the world are governed by God's providence, as our faith also maintains, as it seems to me, no other answer can be given—so that providence may be demonstrated to be free from all blame of injustice—unless it is said that there were certain prior causes for them, by which, before they were born in the body, souls contracted some fault in their own senses or motions, for which they were judged by divine providence to suffer this deservedly. For the soul is always of free will, even when it is in this body, and even when it is outside the body; and the freedom of the will is shown to be always toward good, or toward evil.

^A For it is also reasonable that rational sense—that is, the mind or the soul—can never exist without some movement, whether good or evil. It is probable that these movements supply the causes of merits even before they perform any act in this world, so that for these merits or causes, they may be dispensed, by divine providence, immediately from the first birth—nay, even before birth, if I may so say—to suffer or experience something either good or evil. And these things may be said of those which appear to happen to men either immediately from their first birth or even before they burst forth into this light. But regarding those things that are suggested to the soul—that is, to human thought—by various spirits, which provoke us either toward good or toward the contrary, sometimes indeed there must be thought to exist certain causes prior to bodily birth. At other times, however, the waking mind, casting off from itself things that are evil, invites the help of good spirits toward itself; or, on the contrary, being negligent and slothful, while it is less cautious, it gives a place to those spirits who, like thieves lying in wait in secret, strive to rush into human minds when they see a place given to them through sloth, as the apostle Peter says, for "our adversary the devil goes about as a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour." For this reason, our heart must be guarded with all care day and night, and no place should be given to the devil; but all things must be done so that the ministers of God—those spirits, namely, who are called to the inheritance of salvation—may find a place in us, and may be pleased to enter the lodging of our soul, and, dwelling with us, may guide us with their counsels, if indeed they find the dwelling-place of our heart adorned with the cultivation of virtue and holiness. ^B But let these things, which have been discussed by us as far as our strength allows regarding those virtues which oppose the human race, be sufficient.

Chapter IV. Of human temptations.

1. Now I think we must not be silent even about those human temptations which sometimes arise from flesh and blood, or from the wisdom of the flesh and blood, which is said to be an enemy to God. And after we have set forth those temptations which are called more than human—that is, those which we wage against principalities and powers, and against the rulers of the darkness of this world, and against spiritual wickedness in high places, or those that are waged against us by malignant spirits and unclean demons—I think we must consequently inquire in this matter whether, in us men who consist of soul and body, there is also some other thing that has its own proper ^C motive and provocation to evil; just as a question is usually raised by some of this kind: whether we are to speak of two souls in us, one of which is more divine and heavenly, and the other inferior; or whether, from the very fact that we cling to bodies (which bodies, according to their own nature, are indeed dead and completely lifeless, because the material body is vivified from us—that is, from our souls—which is surely contrary and hostile to the spirit), we are drawn and provoked to these evils which are pleasing to the body; or whether it is a third thing, as some of the Greeks have supposed, namely, that our soul, while it is one in substance, consists nevertheless of several parts, and one part of it is called rational, but the other part irrational, and that this part which they call irrational is divided again into two affections: desire and irascibility. We find, therefore, that these three opinions about the soul, which we have mentioned above, are held by some. Of these, I do not see that the one which we have said seemed to some Greek philosophers—that the soul is tripartite—is very strongly confirmed by the authority of divine Scripture; ^D but regarding the other two, which remain, some things can be found which seem to be able to be adapted from the divine Scriptures. Some are accustomed to argue that there is in us one soul that is good and heavenly, and another that is inferior and earthly; and that the one which is better is infused from heaven, such as that which, when Jacob was still placed in the womb, gave the palm of victory to supplant his brother; and which is sanctified in Jeremiah from the womb, and filled with the Holy Spirit from the womb in John. But the other, inferior soul, which they say is from bodily seed, they assert is sown at the same time as the body; and therefore they deny that it can live or subsist apart from the body, for which reason they often say it is called "flesh." For they do not interpret what is written, "The flesh lusts against the spirit," as being said of the flesh, but of this soul which is properly the soul of the flesh. But they strive no less to confirm from these things what is written in Leviticus thus: "The life [soul] of all flesh is its blood." For from the fact that blood, diffused through the whole flesh, provides life to the flesh, they say that this soul, which is called the soul of all flesh, is present in the blood. But this very thing itself, that it is said that the flesh resists the spirit, and the spirit in turn the flesh; and that which is said: "The soul/life..."

^A ...is by another name said by them to be called the wisdom of the flesh, which is a certain material spirit, which is not subject to the law of God, nor can it be subject, because it has earthly wills and bodily desires. About this they think that the Apostle also said that which he says: 'But I see another law in my members, resisting the law of my mind, and leading me captive in the law of sin which is in my members' (Rom. VII, 23). If, however, anyone objects to them that this is said concerning the nature of the body, which truly indeed according to the propriety of its nature is dead, but is said to have a sense or wisdom which is hostile to God, or which resists the spirit, for this reason—as if one were to say in a certain way that this is the voice of the flesh itself, which cries out that it must not be hungry, must not be thirsty, must not be cold, and does not wish to suffer trouble in any way either from abundance or from penury—they will endeavor to resolve and refute these points by showing that there are very many other passions of the soul which in nothing at all draw their origin from the flesh, and yet the spirit resists these, such as ambition, avarice, emulation, envy, pride, and things like these. Since they see that there is a certain conflict between these and the human mind or spirit, they therefore posit as the cause of all these evils nothing else but this one that we spoke of above, like a corporeal ^B soul generated from the transmission of seed. They are also accustomed to bring forward for the assertion of these things that testimony of the Apostle as well, which says: 'But the works of the flesh are manifest, which are fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft (Gal. V, 19-21), enmities, contentions, emulations, wraths, quarrels, dissensions, heresies, sects, envies, drunkenness, revellings, and such like,' saying that not all these draw their origin from the use or pleasure of the flesh, so that it might be thought that these movements exist from that substance which has no soul, which is to say, the flesh. But also that which he says: 'See, brothers, your calling, that not many among you are wise according to the flesh' (I Cor. I, 26); to this it will seem to be inclined, so that a certain proper carnal and material wisdom might appear to exist, while another is wisdom according to the spirit, which indeed cannot be called wisdom, unless there be a soul of the flesh, which is wise in that which is called the wisdom of the flesh. To these things they also say that: 'If the flesh resists the spirit, and the spirit resists the flesh (Gal. V, 17), so that we do not do those things that we will, which are those things of which he says that we do not do what we will?' It is certain, they say, that it is not said concerning the spirit: for the will of the spirit is not prohibited. But neither is it concerning the flesh, because if it does not have its own soul, without doubt it will have no will. It remains, therefore, that it is said concerning the will of this soul, which can have its own will, which indeed resists the will of the spirit. And if it is so, it is clear that the will of this soul is a certain mean between the flesh and the spirit, serving and obeying without doubt one of the two, whichever it has chosen to obey. When it has subjected itself to the delights of the flesh, it makes men carnal; but when it has joined itself to the spirit, it makes men to be in the spirit, and for this reason to be called spiritual. ^C This the Apostle seems to designate when he says: 'But you are not in the flesh, but in the spirit' (Rom. VIII, 9). It must be asked, therefore, what is entirely this very will between the flesh and the spirit, besides that will which is said to be of the flesh or of the spirit. For it is held for certain that whatever things are said to be of the spirit, the will is of the spirit; and whatever works are said to be of the flesh, the will is of the flesh. What, then, is this will of the soul, besides these, which is named outwardly, which the Apostle says we do not wish to do: 'So that you do not do those things that you will' (Gal. V, 17)? In which this seems to be designated, that it ought to adhere to neither of these two, that is, neither to the flesh nor to the spirit. But someone will say that, just as it is indeed better for the soul if it does its own will than that it do the will of the flesh; so again it is better to do the will of the spirit more than its own will. How, then, does the Apostle say: 'So that you do not do those things that you will'? Because in that battle which is waged between the flesh and the spirit, there is not altogether a certain victory for the spirit. For it is manifest that the flesh prevails in very many things. ^D 5. But since we have fallen into a deep dispute, in which it is necessary to discuss from each and every part that can be moved; let us see if by chance in this place such a thing can be treated, because just as it is better for the soul to follow the spirit, when the spirit has overcome the flesh, so also if it seems to it to be worse to follow the flesh when it is resisting...

^A and desiring to recall the soul to itself, yet perhaps it may appear more useful for the soul to be obtained by the flesh than to reside in its own proper wills. For since it is said to be neither hot nor cold, but enduring in a certain lukewarm state, it might find a slow and sufficiently difficult conversion. But if it adheres to the flesh, through those very evils which it suffers from the vices of the flesh, being at some time satiated and filled, or fatigued as if by the heaviest burdens of luxury and lust, it can more easily and quickly be converted from material filth to the desire of heavenly and spiritual grace. And this is what we must consider the Apostle meant when he said that the spirit fights against the flesh, and the flesh against the spirit, that we may not do whatever we wish, meaning undoubtedly those things which are determined against the will of the spirit and against the will of the flesh; as if we were to say in other words that it is better for a man to be either in virtue or in vice than in neither of these. But the soul, before it converts to the spirit and becomes one with it, while it adheres to the body and thinks of carnal things, seems to be neither in a good state ^B nor manifest in a bad one, but, if I may so speak, similar to an animal. But it is better that, if it is possible, adhering to the spirit, it should become spiritual. But if that is not possible, it is more expedient for it to follow even the malice of the flesh, than, placed in its own wills, to hold the state of an irrational animal. But we have discussed these things wishing to set forth the opinions of individual assertions, using a wider digression than we had intended, so that it might not be thought that those questions usually raised by those who inquire escape us, namely, whether there is another soul in us besides this heavenly and rational one, which naturally opposes it, and is called either flesh, or the wisdom of the flesh, or the soul of the flesh.

4. Now let us see what also is wont to be answered to these things by those who defend that there is one motion in us, and one life of one and the same soul, [324] to which, whether its salvation or perdition, according to its acts, is properly ascribed. And first let us see of what kind those passions of the mind are ^B which we suffer when we feel ourselves, as it were, drawn into parts within ourselves; when a certain struggle of thoughts occurs in our hearts, and certain likelihoods are suggested to us, by which we are now inclined to this, now to that, and by which we are now reproved, and now we embrace ourselves. Nor is it a great thing to say that evil minds have a varied and self-repugnant judgment, since it is found the same in all men, if at any time deliberation on an uncertain matter comes to a counsel, and it is foreseen or deliberated what ought to be chosen as more right or useful. It is no wonder, therefore, if two likelihoods, meeting each other and suggesting contrary things, drag the mind in different directions. For instance, if a thought invites someone to the faith and fear of God, then it cannot be said that the flesh fights against the spirit; but when it is uncertain what is true and useful, the mind is dragged in different directions. So also, when it is thought that the flesh is provoking to lust, but the better counsel resists such ^C incitements, it is not to be thought that there is some other life which resists the other, but [it is] the nature of the body, which, when filled, desires to empty the places of the vital humor and to flow forth; just as neither some opposing virtue, nor the life of another soul, is to be thought [to be that] which excites thirst in us and provokes [us] to drink, or which makes us hungry and irritates [us] to food. But just as these things are either sought or evacuated by the natural motions of the body, so also the natural humor of the seed, gathered for a time in its proper places, desires to be expelled and cast out: a thing which is not in the least caused by the impulse of any other provocation, to such an extent that it is sometimes wont to be discharged even spontaneously. When, therefore, it is said that "the flesh lusts against the spirit" [Gal. V, 17], these men interpret it thus: that the practice, or necessity, or delight of the flesh, by provoking man, draws and leads [him] away from divine and spiritual things. For because of the ^D necessity of the body, we are not allowed to be free for divine and eternally profitable things. So, in turn, the soul, being free from divine and spiritual things and joined to the spirit, is said to fight against the flesh, while it does not allow it to be dissolved in delights and to float in the pleasures in which it is naturally delighted. In this way also they assert what was said: "The wisdom of the flesh is hostile to God" [Rom. VIII, 7], not that the flesh truly has a soul or its own wisdom, but just as we are accustomed to say abusively that the earth is thirsty and wants to drink water—this which we call "wanting," we do not express properly, but abusively—just as if we were to say again that a house wants to be repaired, and many other things similar to these; so also the wisdom of the flesh is to be received, or what was said: "The flesh lusts against the spirit." They are also accustomed to add what was said: "The voice of your brother's blood cries to me from the ground" [Gen. IV, 10]. For what is cried...

to the Lord; for that which was poured out is not strictly blood, but is said to cry out as blood ^A figuratively, while vengeance is demanded for the one who shed the blood. And as for what the Apostle says: "But I see another law in my members, warring against the law of my mind," they interpret this as if he had said that one who wishes to be free for the word of God is distracted, torn apart, and hindered by bodily needs and uses, which exist in the body like a certain law, so that he cannot, while free for wisdom, gaze more intently upon divine mysteries.

5. They also interpret those things written about heresies, envy, contentions, and the rest, to mean that when the soul has become thick of sense, from the fact that it subjects itself to the passions of the body, oppressed by the weights of vices, and perceiving nothing subtle or spiritual, it is said to have become flesh, and from that it draws its name, in which it bears more eagerness or purpose. They add also by inquiring into these things: who will be found, or who will be called the creator of this evil sense, which is called the sense of the flesh? Since they defend that no other creator of soul and flesh is to be believed than God. And if we say that God, who is good, created in his own condition something hostile to himself, it will certainly seem absurd. If, therefore, it is written that "the wisdom of the flesh is hostile to God," and this is said to have been done from the creation, it will seem that God himself made a nature for himself that is hostile, which cannot be subject to him or to his law; for if it is thought to be an ensouled being, of which these things are said. But if it is accepted in this way, what will it now seem to differ from those who say that diverse natures of souls were created, which are naturally either to perish or to be saved? What, at any rate, pleases only those heretics who, while they cannot assert the justice of God by a pious argument, compose figments of such impiety. And we, for our part, as we have been able, have brought forward into our midst, according to the persons of each, what can be said in the manner of a disputation about each of the dogmas; but let the reader choose from these which argument is more to be embraced.

CHAPTER V. That the world began in time.

1. Since after these things one thing is held chiefly according to the faith of our history, that this world was made and began at a certain time, and according to ^B the consummation of the age promulgated to all, that it must be resolved for its corruption, it does not seem absurd to repeat a few things also about this. And as far as the faith of the Scriptures is concerned, the assertion about this seems very easy. Finally, although heretics are distracted in many other things, in this, however, they have been seen to agree by yielding to the authority of Scripture. Therefore, what other Scripture could better teach us about the condition of the world than that which was written by Moses concerning its origin? Which, although it may contain within itself things greater than the narrative of history seems to show, and contains a spiritual understanding in the highest matters, and uses a certain veil of the letter in mystical and profound things; yet nonetheless the discourse of the narrator indicates this, that all things which are seen were created from a certain time. Concerning the consummation of the world, Jacob first indicates this when he testifies to his sons, saying: "Gather yourselves together to me, O sons of Jacob, that I may announce to you what will be in the last days," or "after the last days." If, therefore, there are last days, or [there is a time] after the last days, it is necessary that the days which have begun should cease. David also says thus: "The heavens shall perish, but thou shalt remain, and they all shall grow old like a garment; and as a vesture thou shalt change them, and they shall be changed; but thou art the same, and thy years shall not fail." Our Lord and Savior, however, when he says: "He who created from the beginning made them male and female," he testifies that the world was also made; and again saying that "Heaven and earth shall pass away, but my words shall not pass away," he designates it as corruptible and to be ended. But also the Apostle, saying: "For the creature was made subject to vanity, not willingly, but by reason of him who subjected it in hope, because the creature itself also shall be delivered from the servitude of corruption into the liberty of the glory of the children of God," ^C manifests that he declares the end of the world; and when he says again: "The fashion of this world shall pass away." But in that very fact that he said that the creature was made subject to vanity, he also shows its beginning; for if the creature was made subject to vanity on account of some hope, it was surely subjected for a cause; and that which is for a cause, it is necessary that it should have begun; for the creature could not have been subject to vanity without any beginning, and hope to be delivered from the servitude of corruption which it had not begun to serve. But also one will find very many other sayings of this kind in the divine Scriptures if he searches. ^D

2. If, therefore, there is anyone who opposes this or the authority of our Scripture, or our faith, we shall question him whether he says that God is able to comprehend all things, or is not able? And indeed to say that He is not able is manifestly impious. But if he says, as he must, that He comprehends all things, it remains that by that very fact—that they can be comprehended—they must also be understood to have a beginning and an end. For that which is entirely without any beginning at all cannot be comprehended at all. For to whatever extent ^A the intellect extends itself, to that extent the faculty of comprehending is withdrawn and deferred without end, where there is no beginning.

3. But it is customary for men to object to us, saying: "If the world began in time, what was God doing before the world began?" For to call the nature of God idle and immobile is impious as well as absurd, or to think that goodness at some time did not do good, and omnipotence did not exert power. Men who say that this world began at a certain time ^B and who calculate the years of its age according to the faith of Scripture are accustomed to object this to us. To these objections I do not think any of the heretics can easily answer according to the reason of their dogma. We, however, shall answer accordingly, observing the rule of piety, and saying that it is not the case that God only then began to work when He made this visible world, but just as after the corruption of this world there will be another, so too before this one existed, we believe there were others. And both facts will be confirmed ^C by the authority of divine Scripture. For that there will be another world after this one, Isaiah teaches, saying: "There shall be a new heaven and a new earth, which I make to remain in my sight." And that there were also others before this world, Ecclesiastes shows, saying: "What is it that has been made? The same thing as that which will be. And what is it that has been created? This same thing as that which is to be created, and there is nothing at all new under the sun. But who will speak and say, Behold, this is new? ^D It has already been in the ages that were before us." By these testimonies it is proven both at once, that ages existed before, and that others will follow afterward. However, one should not think that several worlds exist at the same time, but that after this one, the beginning of others will follow; concerning which it is not now necessary to speak in detail, since we have already done so in the preceding pages.

4. It is indeed not idle to think that the holy Scriptures have called the condition of the world by a new and proper name, saying *katabolē* of the world, which they have called *constitutio mundi* in Latin, though translated inaccurately; for *katabolē* in Greek actually signifies "to cast down," that is, to throw downward, which (as we have said) they have inaccurately interpreted as "constitution of the world," just as in the Gospel according to John when the Savior says: "And there shall be tribulation in those days such as has not been from the *constitutio mundi*," here *constitutio* is what was spoken as *katabolē*: which is to be understood in the way we explained above. And the Apostle also in the Epistle to the Ephesians used the same expression when he says: "Who chose us before the *mundi constitutio*," and here he said *katabolē* of the world, to be understood in the same sense as we interpreted above. Therefore, it seems worthy to inquire what it is that is indicated by this new term: and I think, since indeed the end and the consummation of the saints will be in those things which are not seen and are eternal, that from the contemplation of his own end...

those rational beings inhabiting that realm, ^A before they descended to the lower places and migrated from the invisible to the visible, and, falling, stood in need of gross bodies for the earth, were enjoying their ancient blessedness. Whence the Creator God made for them bodies suitable to the lowly places, and fashioned this visible world, and sent into the world ministers for the salvation and correction of those who had fallen; of whom some obtained specific locations and obeyed the necessities of the world, while others, with a diligent mind, carried out the duties enjoined upon them, each at the times known to God, the Artificer. And from these the sun, the moon, and the stars, which by the Apostle are called "creature," received the more sublime places of the world. Which creature was made subject to vanity in that it is surrounded by gross bodies and is manifest to sight; and yet it was not subjected to vanity of its own will, but because of the will of him who subjected it in hope. And again: "But others in individual places and times, which the Artificer alone knows, serve the government of the world, whom we believe to be angels." And a little further on: "Whom the Providence of the whole world rules, while some powers fall from the more sublime heights, ^B others little by little slip down to the earth; these descend voluntarily, others are precipitated against their will; these undertake ministries to reach out to those falling, that they might offer assistance; those are compelled, though ungrateful, to persevere for so long a time in the office they have received. And again: From which it follows that, on account of various movements, various things are created, and after this world which we inhabit, another world much different is made. And no other being, through diverse events and advancements, and either rewards of virtues or punishments of vices, both in the present and in the future, and in all things both back and forth, and in earlier times, can dispense merits, and draw all things back again to one end, except God alone, the Creator of all, who knows the causes for which he permits some to gratify their own will, and to slip down from the greater to the last, and others he begins to visit, and by degrees, as if by a hand reached out, to drag them back to their prior state, and place them in the heights. ^C And they fulfilled their offices in this world, which God, the Artificer of all, alone knows. Truly, however, such and so great must he be considered to have been made, this world, which might either receive all those souls which are ordained in this world to be exercised, or all those virtues which are prepared to be present to them, and to dispense them, and to help them. For that all rational creatures are of one nature is proven by many assertions; by which solely the justice of God can be defended in all their dispensations, while each one within itself has the causes for which it has been placed in this or that order of life.

5. This disposition of God, therefore, which he later ordained, already then from the origin of the world, when the reasons and causes of those who either deserved to come into bodies on account of a defect of mind, or of those who were snatched by the desire for visible things, but also of those who, whether willing or unwilling, were compelled to perform certain duties for those who had fallen into this state, by Him who subjected them in hope, were foreseen—some, not understanding and not noticing that this variety of disposition had been instituted by God from the preceding causes of free will, have thought that all things which happen in this world are moved either by fortuitous movements or by fatal necessity, and that there is nothing in our own choosing. Whence they could not assign an irreproachable providence to God.

6. But as we have said, that all the souls which have lived in this world needed many, or few, or rulers, or helpers: so in the final times, when the end to the world was already pressing near, and the whole human race was verging toward final perdition, for those who were weakened—not only those who were being ruled, but also those to whom the concern of ruling had been committed—there was no longer need of such aid, nor of such defenders like themselves, but

rather they implored the help of their own Author and Creator, who might restore the corrupt and profane discipline of both those who were being ruled and those who were doing the ruling. Hence the only-begotten Son of God, who was the Word and Wisdom of the Father, when He was in that glory with the Father which He had before the world was, emptied ^A Himself, taking the form of a servant, and was made obedient even to death, that He might teach obedience to those who could not otherwise attain salvation except through obedience; and He also restored the corrupt laws of ruling and reigning, while He subjected all enemies under His feet, that by this—since it is necessary that He reign until He puts His enemies under His feet and destroys the last enemy, death—He might teach the rulers themselves the manner of ruling. Since, therefore, He had come not only to restore the discipline of ruling or reigning ^B (29), but also of obeying, as we have said, fulfilling in His own person first what He wished to be fulfilled by others, therefore He was made obedient to the Father not only until the death of the cross, but even in the consummation of the age, gathering into Himself all whom He subjects to the Father and who come to salvation through Him, he is said also to be subjected to the Father together with them and in them: while all things remain in Him, and He is the head of all, and in Him is the fullness of those who obtain salvation (30). This therefore is what the Apostle says of Him: *When all things shall have been subjected to Him, then shall the Son Himself also be subject to Him who subjected all things to Him, that God may be all in all* (I Cor. xv, 28).

7. But I do not know how heretics (31) do not understand the sense of the Apostle which is contained in these words, and slander the name of subjection in the Son; for if one asks for the proper meaning of this term, it can easily be discovered from its opposites. For if to be subject is not good, it remains that what is contrary to it is good, that is, not to be subject. For the argument of the Apostle, according to what they wish, seems to show this, when he says: *But when all things shall have been subjected to Him, then shall the Son Himself also be subject to Him who subjected all things to Him,* as if He who is not now subject to the Father will be subject then, when the Father has first subjected all things to Him. But I wonder how this can be understood, that He who is not Himself subject while all things are not yet subjected to Him, will then, when all things have been subjected to Him, be subject to the Father, ^A and will have held power over all things, then they think He must be subjected, when He was not subject before; not understanding that the subjection of Christ to the Father shows the blessedness of our perfection, and declares the palm of the work undertaken by Him, when He offers to the Father the institutions of the human race, not only corrected and repaired regarding the sum of ruling and reigning which He amended in the whole of creation, but also regarding obedience and subjection (32). If therefore that subjection is accepted as good and salutary, by which the Son is said to be subject to the Father (35), it is highly consequent and consistent that the subjection of the enemies which is said to be to the Son of God, should be understood as something salutary and useful; so that just as when the Son is said to be subject to the Father, the perfect restoration of the whole creation is declared, so when the enemies are said to be subjected to the Son of God (34), the salvation and reparation of the lost of those who are subjected is understood in Him.

8. But this subjection will be completed in certain ways and modes and at certain times; not by any necessity compelling them to subjection, lest the whole world be made subject to God by force, but by the Word, by reason, by doctrine, by the provocation of better things, by excellent institutions, and also by worthy and competent threats, which justly hang over those who contemn the care and health of their own salvation and utility. Finally, when we men educate either slaves or children, while they are still incapable of reason through their age (35), we coerce them with fears and threats; but when they have come to the understanding of what is good, useful, and honest, then, with the fear of stripes ceasing, they agree, persuaded by word and reason, to all that is good. How, however, the freedom of the will ^C being preserved in all rational creatures, each one ought to be dealt with—that is, whom the Word of God may find and teach as if already prepared and capable, whom it may meanwhile defer, from whom it may truly be hidden entirely, and whose hearing it may move far away from itself, and whom, again, it may urge to salvation by certain corrections and punishments brought upon them, and in some way demand and extort their conversion; and to whom also it may present certain occasions of salvation, so that sometimes even from a response alone, the faith being proved

undeniable salvation, or from what causes or occasions these things happen, or what the divine wisdom looks into in these matters, or what movements of their purpose it sees when it dispenses all these things, is known to God alone and to his Only-Begotten, through whom all things were created and restored, and to the Holy Spirit through whom all things are sanctified, who proceeds from the Father himself, to whom be glory for everlasting ages. Amen.

CAPUT VI. Of the consummation of the world.

1. Concerning the end of the world and the consummation of all things, we have already discoursed to the best of our ability in the preceding books, according as the authority of the divine Scriptures has permitted, which we think to be sufficient for instruction, though we offer a few further admonitions now, since the order ^A of our inquiry has led us to this place. Therefore, the supreme good to which all rational nature hastens, which is also said to be the end of all things, is defined by very many of the philosophers in this way: that the supreme good is, as far as possible, to be made like unto God. But I think this is not so much an invention of theirs as something they have assumed from the divine books. For Moses indicates this before all others, when he narrates the first condition of man, saying: "And God said: Let us make man in our image and likeness." Then he adds: "And God made man, in the image of God he made him, male and female he made them, and he blessed them." This, therefore, which he said, "in the image of God he made him," and was silent about the ^B likeness, indicates nothing else but that [man] received the dignity of the image in his first condition; but the perfection of the likeness is reserved for the consummation; namely, that he should acquire it for himself by the efforts of his own industry through the imitation of God, with the possibility of perfection given to him in his beginnings through the dignity of the image, until finally, at the end, he might consummate for himself the perfect likeness through the fulfillment of his works. But the apostle John states that these things are so more openly and evidently, pronouncing in this way: "Little children, we do not yet know what we shall be; but if it is revealed to us concerning the Savior, you will say without doubt, We shall be like him." By which he most certainly indicates both the end of all things, which he says is still unknown to him, and the likeness of God which is to be obtained, which will be provided according to the perfection of merits. The Lord himself also in the Gospel signifies these same things ^C not only as future, but also as future through his own intercession, while he himself deigns to obtain this from the Father for his disciples, saying: "Father, I will that where I am, they also may be with me; and as I and thou are one, so they also may be one in us." In which it is now seen that the very likeness, if it can be said, is progressing, and from a likeness is already becoming a unity, for the reason, without doubt, that in the consummation or end, God is all in all.

In which it is inquired by some, if the nature of a corporeal substance, even if purged and made entirely spiritual, does not seem to stand in the way of either the dignity of the likeness or the property of unity; because the divine nature, which is certainly incorporeal, would seem to be unable to be called a corporeal nature, nor can it be truly and worthily ^D designated as one with it, especially since the truth of the faith teaches that what is one is the Son with the Father, which is to be referred to the property of nature.

INTERPRETATION OF ST. JEROME

And a little later: That which is said by the same Apostle: "Every creature will be freed from the servitude of corruption into the liberty of the glory of the children of God," we understand in such a way that we say the primary creature of rational and incorporeal beings is one that does not serve corruption, because it is not clothed with bodies; and wherever bodies are, corruption immediately follows. But afterwards [that creation] will be freed from the servitude of corruption when they have received the glory of the children of God, and God shall be all in all.

And in the same place: That we may believe that the end of all things is incorporeal, that prayer of the Savior invites us in which he says: "That as I and thou are one, so they also may be one in us." For we ought to know what God is, and what the Savior is to be in the end; and how the likeness of the Father and the Son is promised in the saints; [and] that as those are one in themselves, so these may be one in them. For either we must accept that the God of the universe is clothed in a body, and that, as we are surrounded by flesh, so he is surrounded by some matter, *so that* the likeness of the life of God can be equaled in the end by the saints; or if this is indecent, especially among...

those who desire even in the smallest degree to perceive God ^A and to suspect the glory of the ingenerate and all-transcending nature; we are compelled to accept one of two things: either that we should despair of the likeness of God, if we are to have the same bodies forever, or, if the blessedness of the same life with God is promised to us, we must live under the same condition by which God lives. 2. But when it is promised that in the end God will be all things and in all things, just as is consequent © , it must not be thought that animals, or cattle, or beasts, come to that end, so that God should be designated as being in animals, or cattle, or beasts; nor even that God is said to be in woods or stones. For this reason, not even a single trace of malice ^A must be thought to arrive at that end, lest, while God is said to be in all things, He should also be said to be in some vessel of malice. For even if we say that God is now everywhere and in all things, on the ground that nothing can be empty of God, yet we do not say that He is "all things" in those in which He is. Hence it must be more carefully observed what this phrase is that signifies the perfection of blessedness and the end of all things: that God is said to be not only "in all things" ^B but also "all things in all things." Let us therefore inquire what these "all things" are that God is to be in all things.

*New Version.* But when it is said that God becomes all things in all things, just as we cannot assert wickedness, so neither does God become all things in all things, nor that which is brute, lest God should also be in malice and in brute animals; but neither does He become that which is inanimate, lest He should also be in those things, when He becomes all things. So neither does He become that which bodies are, which by their own nature are inanimate.

For God is said to be "all things in all things," so that it signifies that in each one He is all things. But to each one He will be all things in this way, that whatever the rational mind, purged of the dregs of all vices and completely cleansed of every cloud of malice, can perceive, understand, or think, God is all things, and it sees nothing else beyond God, nor holds onto anything but God; the mode and measure of its every movement is God; and thus God will be all things. For there will no longer be any distinction between good and evil, because nowhere will there be evil; for all things are God, to whom evil no longer attaches; nor will it any longer desire to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for it is always in the good, and for it, God is all things. Thus, therefore, the end being repaired to the beginning, and the outcome of things being brought to the start, He will restore that state which the rational nature held at that time when it did not need to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; so that all sense of malice having been removed, and it having been cleansed to that which is sincere and pure, He alone who is the one good God becomes all things to it, and not in a few things or in more, but in all things He Himself is all things ^A. When now there is nowhere death, nowhere the sting of death, nowhere any evil at all, then truly will God be all in all.

Verily ^B this perfection and blessedness of rational creatures, or natures, is such that some think they remain in the same state which we have described above, that is, that they have God as their all, and God is all to them, if only the association of bodily nature does not remove them. Otherwise, they think that the glory of the highest blessedness is hindered if an admixture of material substance intervenes. Concerning which matter we have spoken more fully ^C in... [D (text continues below)]

Interpret. Hieronymi

^A Furthermore, it should not be ignored that many rational creatures serve the beginning of the Third and Fourth world, and afford no place for change within themselves; but others will be so little destined to lose their pristine state that they appear to have lost almost nothing, while some, through a great fall, are to be cast down into the ultimate abyss. And God, the dispenser of all things, knows how to use individual things in the conditioning of worlds according to their merit and the opportunities and causes by which the world's governance is sustained and initiated; so that he who has conquered all by malice, and has utterly leveled himself with the earth, may become the devil in another world that is to be fashioned thereafter—the beginning of the Lord’s workmanship—so that he may be mocked by the angels who have lost the virtue of their origin.

4. But now, since we find a mention of a spiritual body in the Apostle, let us seek only, to the extent we can, how we should also conceive of this. As far as our sense can grasp, we feel that the quality of a spiritual body is of such a nature that it is suitable for not only holy and perfect souls to inhabit, but also all that creation which shall be liberated from the servitude of corruption. Regarding the body, the Apostle also said: “We have a house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens” (II Cor. v, 1), that is, in the mansions of the blessed. From this, therefore, we can conjecture how great in purity, how great in subtilty, and how great in glory the quality of that body is, if we make a comparison of it to those things which now—though they be celestial and most splendid bodies—are nevertheless “made with hands” and are visible. But of the former it is said that the house is “not made with hands, but eternal in the heavens.” Since, therefore, “the things which are seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen are eternal” (II Cor. iv, 18), that which is neither visible nor made with hands, but is eternal, excels by a very long measure all these bodies which we see either on earth or in the heavens, and which can be seen and were made with hands, and are not eternal. From which comparison it can be conjectured how great the grace, how great the splendor, how great the brilliance of the spiritual body is; and that it is true which has been said: “Eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor has it entered into the heart of man what God has prepared for those who love him” (I Cor. ii, 9). Nor should it be doubted that the nature of this body of ours, by the will of God who fashioned it such, can be led by the Creator to that quality of a most subtle, most pure, and most splendid body, as the state and merit of the rational nature shall require. Indeed, when the world stood in need of variety and diversity, it offered itself with every service to the Creator through diverse aspects and species of things, just as to its Lord and Creator, that He might draw from it diverse forms of celestial and terrestrial things. But when things begin to hasten toward that end, that all may be one, just as the Father with the Son is one, it is consequently given to be understood that where all are one, there will no longer be diversity.

5. Therefore, even the “last enemy” (53), who is called death, is said to be destroyed, so that there may no longer be anything sad where death is not, nor anything adverse where there is no enemy. Truly, the last enemy is to be understood as destroyed not in such a way that his substance, which was made by God, should perish, but that the hostile purpose and will, which proceeded not from God but from himself, should perish. He will be destroyed, therefore, not so that he may not exist, but so that death and the enemy may not exist. For nothing is impossible to the Almighty, nor is anything incurable to its Maker; for He made all things so that they might exist, and things that were made so that they might exist cannot but exist. On account of this, they will indeed receive change and variety, so that they may be held in a state either better or worse according to their merits; but substantial destruction those things which were made by God so that they might exist and endure cannot receive. For the things which are believed by the opinion of the masses to perish do not straightway consent to perish by any logic of faith or truth. Finally, our flesh is thought by the unlearned and infidels to perish so utterly after death that nothing of its substance is believed to remain. But we (54), who believe in its resurrection, understand that only a change is wrought by death, but we are certain that its substance remains, and by the will of its Creator and at a fixed time is again restored to life, and that its permutation occurs again, so that that which was first flesh from the earthly earth, then dissolved by death, and again made ash and earth—"For dust you are," it says, "and to dust you shall return" (Gen. iii, 19)—is again resurrected from the earth, and after this, according to what the merit of the indwelling soul shall require, proceeds into the glory of a spiritual body.

6. To this state, therefore, it is to be thought that all our corporal substance is to be led, when all things are restored, that they may be one, and when God shall be all in all. Which, however (55), is understood to come to pass not suddenly, but little by little and by degrees, through the passing of infinite and immense ages.

^A as the amendment and correction is carried out bit by bit and person by person, with some outstripping others and tending toward the heights with a swifter course, while others follow at a space close behind, and then others again further behind; and so, through the many and countless orders of those advancing and reconciling themselves to God from their state as enemies, one arrives even at the last enemy that is called death, that even he may be destroyed so that he is an enemy no longer.

When, therefore, all reasonable souls have been restored to a state of this kind, then the nature of this body of ours will also be brought to the glory of a spiritual body. For just as we see regarding reasonable natures that it is not the case that there are some who have lived in indignity on account of sins and others who have been invited to blessedness on account of their merits, but rather that we see these very same ones who had previously been sinners transformed and reconciled to God and recalled to blessedness; so too must it be thought regarding the nature of the body, that it is not the case that there is one body which we now use in ignominy and in corruption and in infirmity, and another that will be that which we shall use in incorruption, and in virtue, and in glory; but this same body, once those infirmities in which it now exists have been cast off, will be transmuted into glory as a spiritual effect, so that what was a vessel of indignity may itself, once purged, become a vessel of honor and a dwelling-place of blessedness.

In which state it is also to be believed that it will remain forever and immutably by the will of the Creator, with the conviction of the Apostle confirming the faith of the matter, saying: "We have a house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens." For the faith of the Church does not accept, as some of the Greek philosophers do, that beyond this body which is composed of four elements there is another fifth body which is in every respect different and distinct from this body of ours; since one can neither adduce any suspicion of these things from the holy Scriptures, nor does the very consequence of things allow them to be accepted, especially since the holy Apostle defines clearly that it is not the case that some new bodies are given to those rising from the dead, but that they receive these very ones which they had while living, transformed from worse to better. For he says: "It is sown an animal body, it rises a spiritual body; it is sown in corruption, ^B it rises in incorruption; it is sown in infirmity, it rises in virtue; it is sown in ignominy, it rises in glory."

As, therefore, a certain progress exists for man, so that when he is first an animal man, and does not understand the things that are of the Spirit of God, he comes through instruction to this, so that he may be made spiritual, and may judge all things, while he himself is judged by no one; so also is it to be thought regarding the state of the body, that the very same body which is now called animal from its service to the soul, through a certain progress, when the soul has been joined to God and made one spirit with Him, will then advance into a spiritual state and quality, especially since, as we have often shown, such a corporeal nature was made by the Creator that it easily follows in whatever quality He might will, or the circumstances might demand.

7. This reasoning, therefore, contains this: that God created two general natures, a visible nature, that is, a corporeal one, and an invisible nature, which is incorporeal. These two natures, however, receive their various permutations. Indeed, that invisible nature which is reasonable is changed by purpose and resolve because it has been endowed with the freedom of its own will; and through this it is found at one time in good, at another time in the contrary. But this corporeal nature receives a substantial permutation; whence also, for everything that the Artificer of all, God, might wish to devise, or to construct, or to alter, the matter of this has in all things a servitude, so that whatever forms or species He wishes, as the merits of things demand, He may transmute and transfer the corporeal nature. Which the prophet designating clearly says: "God who makes all things and transmutes them."

8. Surely this must be asked: if then God shall be all in all, in the consummation of all things, the whole corporeal nature will consist in one species, and every quality of the body will be that one alone which will shine in that ineffable glory, which is to be understood as being that of a future spiritual body. For if we understand rightly what Moses writes at the beginning of his book, saying: "In the beginning God made heaven and earth." For this is the beginning of the whole of creation; it is to this beginning that the end and consummation of all things must be recalled: that is, that that heaven and that earth may be the dwelling and rest of the righteous; so that first all the holy and meek may take possession of the inheritance of that earth, since this is what even the law, and the prophets, and the Gospel teach. In which earth I think exist those true and living forms of that observance which Moses was transmitting through the shadow of the law. Regarding which it was said that they serve the copy and shadow of heavenly things; these, namely, who were serving in the law. But it was also said to Moses himself: "See that you make all things ^C according to the form and similitude which was shown to you on the mount." Whence it seems to me that as in ^D