Military Skirmishes of Emperor Nicephorus

II. On the guarding of routes and on scouts. III. On the movement of the enemy, and how narrow passes may be occupied in advance. IV. On how ambushes are to be laid secretly against enemies, and how one must meet adversaries returning home. V. On the occupation of water sources in narrow passes. VI. On engaging with the mounted force, should it fall into pillaging, and how one may estimate the number of their soldiers. VII. On the concentration and movement of the army, and on the provision that merchants be allowed to enter the enemy's borders and to scout. VIII. On the method of observing and pursuing the army. IX. On the movement of the predatory band, and on the pursuit of it. X. On the separation of the predatory band from the infantry following in the rear. XI. In narrow passes, the infantry ought to be stationed on both sides of the road. ^B XII. On a sudden incursion of the enemy, before the Roman forces can be gathered. XIII. On the ambushes which are laid against ^C the measurers, whom we call *mensuratores*, in the camps. XIV. On the separation of the cavalry from the infantry with whom they had been making the journey. XV. On caution. XVI. On removing impediments. XVII. On enemies invading our provinces with huge forces, and on the method of fighting by way of ambushes. XVIII. On when a commander ought to pursue enemies in two divisions. XIX. On the formation, armor, and training of the soldiers. XX. On adversaries, if they linger too long in our region, that our army should cross over into their territory. XXI. On the siege of a stronghold. XXII. On the separation of a half, or even a third part, of the hostile forces. XXIII. On the departure of the enemy and the occupation of the narrow passes (defiles). XXIV. On nocturnal combat. ^D XXV. On another way of occupying a road that presents difficulty at a descent.

PREFACE

Cum propositum nobis sit rationem tradere, qua hostes bello observandi sint, tametsi id fortasse in præsentia minus necessarium in Orientis partibus est, quod Christus, verus Deus noster, infensa nobis vi ac potentia filiorum Ismael majore [trans: Since our proposed task is to hand down the method by which enemies are to be observed in war, although this is perhaps less necessary at present in the regions of the East, because Christ, our true God, has blunted the greater part of the hostile force and power of the descendants of Ismael against us...]

^A But since time, by bringing forgetfulness and ignorance in its train, might destroy and cause the usefulness of this method to vanish, we have thought it necessary to commit it to writing, so that if the Christians should ever need it in the future, when the necessity of the time calls for it, it might be ready as a strong helper, both for the common good and for those who put it into practice. For our part, we have not only heard of this method, but have also been taught some experience of it: partly because we obtained as teachers and instructors those who, one might almost say, invented the method; and partly because we ourselves have employed it and embraced a certain experience of it, as much as was possible for us.

This, then, is its usefulness: that those who have practiced it have achieved, with a small number of troops, most great and memorable deeds. For indeed, what the entire Roman army was unable to accomplish, or even dared not attempt when the power of the Cilicians and of Chambdan was at its peak, a single one of the best commanders—sometimes with only the troops of the province (theme) under his command—would, by prudently and skillfully engaging the enemy and by managing and directing the war intelligently, bring to completion. We say this not because we prefer a small force to a large one in battle, nor because we exalt this method above other military treatises and tactical practices, but because it stands as the best auxiliary for the greatest commanders, so that when they could not stand face-to-face against the enemies, by using this method, they could keep both themselves and their own country safe.^B

This method, as far as I know, was ^C wonderfully enriched and altogether renovated from obscurity by the divine Bardas Caesar (not to count the ancient commanders one by one, but only those known to all in our own time). He, while commanding the troops in the provinces bordering on Tarsus—Cappadocia and the Anatolic—crushed the forces of the Tarsians and the rest of the Cilicians countless times and set up the greatest trophies over them. It was from him that we, too, having been trained in this discipline, have gained such experience as we have of it. Besides him, there was also the patrician Constantine, surnamed Meleinus, who for many years, while in command of the Cappadocian troops, with this as his helper, most successfully achieved not a few things. ^D Alongside these, our lord Nicephorus, prince of immortal memory, also cultivated it marvelously; for, when...

he was in command of the armies, he was wont to employ it, and by its use accomplished many and most admirable deeds, routing the enemy, so to speak, six hundred times and cutting down their greatest forces. To write down or enumerate his glorious deeds, according to the time in which he held command, would be tedious for the readers, both because of the infinite number of them and because they are already well known to many. ^A For the Emperor, having been taught by experience that this discipline is most useful, and having himself written down how it ought to be employed for the common good, commanded me to prepare to the best of my ability a commentary on the same matter to leave to posterity. And not only concerning this [system], which is suitable for the ends of the East, but also concerning that which is in use in the regions of the West: because I commanded troops there for a long time, and I gathered into my mind the knowledge of these matters as much as my ability allowed. But of this [the Western system] we shall speak separately at another time; for the present, our intention is to discuss the other. Therefore, satisfying the prince’s command, and using as my helper divine grace, which ought to be invoked for all desirable good things, I shall begin to speak on our subject in this manner.

Chapter I. On the watches, and at what interval they should be from one to another.

Those who hold the care of the great and limitary provinces, and have within their jurisdiction ^B the mountain passes, must strive and apply themselves with every reason, counsel, and indefatigable diligence, so that they may preserve the Roman borders safe and sound from the incursions of the enemy, and station sentinels who are strong, capable, and well-versed in the routes. If high and difficult ridges separate our jurisdiction from that of the barbarians, in those places sentinels must be placed, and the stations of the sentinels must be distant from one another by three or four miles. If they perceive the adversaries advancing, let them report what they have seen by racing to the next station; and let this station with great speed signal the same to the next: ^C and so, one after another, let them report the matter to the equestrian guards posted in the flat lands, through whom the leader may be informed of the approach of the barbarians. It is fitting that the sentinels remain for fifteen days on the guarding of the roads, and carry with them enough provisions for these days: then, for the changing of these men, let others succeed, rightly chosen and instructed by the prefects, so that they may be present, whole and complete, according to the written register, and let not the prefects, ^D for the sake of base profit, keep them at home.

^A It is permitted to observe the scouts, where it is appropriate for the enemy’s encampments to be, where there is plentiful water and clear ground; and to look for others, where the road creates a bottleneck; and for others, where a river exists that is difficult to cross. And with these guarding securely, the enemy will not be able to make a secret departure. And one must send trustworthy and highly experienced men to observe them, as to whether they are guarding their assigned localities well and vigilantly. And let the assigned scouts depart with their number whole and without being missing [P. 121], and let them not leave their posts ^B or change locations and shift elsewhere, so that by lingering too long in the same places, they may not be recognized and become vulnerable to the enemy.

Chapter II. On the watch-beacons and scouts.

^B The utility of the watch-beacon keepers is necessary; and the general must also take great care of them, and set up the watch-beacons in suitable places, so that when a movement of the enemy occurs, the scouts may perceive this through the watch-beacons, and the general may have foreknowledge of the departure of the enemies, and which road they are about to take; and let the country folk (4) be warned by them and by the sweepers (5), and take refuge in the fortifications along with their livestock. And in the borderlands of the Armenian themes, since the Armenians do not perform the service of the watches well or securely, it is an obligation to observe the custom that has held from of old in the Armenian watches: that suitable men be chosen and enrolled, receiving ^C pay collected from the army, for the work that such an army ought to have performed in conducting the watches; and likewise, that they receive the ration established for each month and be changed every month, and that they guard securely the roads by which the enemies make their egress. But since not even those Armenians who are so engaged with pay and rations perform the service of the watches correctly, it is necessary to ascertain the movements of the armies from scouts who have been dispatched, and to choose brave and vigorous men—whom the Armenians call *tasinarios*—and having enrolled them in the military register, to set prefects over them, who, ^D [index: entries preserved]

in addition to courage, also possess extensive experience of the paths and regions of Syria; and to send these out continuously, so that they may descend into the enemies' territories and wreak havoc, and if possible, seize some of the enemy and bring them to the commander-in-chief, so that through them he may learn of the movements and plans of the adversaries.

CHAPTER III. Concerning the movement of the enemy, and how narrow passes should be preemptively occupied.

^A When the general is informed that the adversaries have moved, he also must assemble and arm his own troops, and proceed to the frontier, and gather all the infantry on the road by which the enemies are about to emerge. If he realizes that the adversaries are advancing with a small force, he should hasten to meet them and overcome them with his cavalry and infantry, if he has been able to lead and draw them up. And since infantry engagement is better suited to narrow paths and difficult terrain, it is advantageous to hold the higher ground with this type of arms, and to post lines of infantry on either side, if the nature of the terrain allows. Where a cavalry battle can take place, cavalry should also be joined to the infantry, so that the enemies, having perceived this preparation and the occupation of the narrow passes, may either check their forward movement and onset, or, with God’s help, be overcome. ^B But where the nature of the terrain does not allow troops to be drawn up on both sides, but only on one, that side from which it is possible to descend must also be preemptively occupied. Where the unevenness of the terrain is a hindrance, such that an attack by the armed men cannot be made from higher ground, and the road is gradually rising, rough, and forced into a very narrow width by flowing streams, it is necessary to draw up the line of infantry likewise on the higher ground, and to block and hedge in the road itself with legionary shield-bearers and javelin-men; and behind these, to post those who throw stones by hand, and together with them, archers and slingers; and likewise to post a second, reserve line behind the first. ^C But on both sides of the line that holds the middle of the road, javelin-men should be stationed, as well as light-armed troops and slingers. But if other routes are said to exist to the right and left of the line occupying the military road—which routes the frontier guards call *atrapoi*, that is, footpaths—it is necessary that these too be occupied by an infantry force and diligently guarded, lest perchance the enemies, having learned that the public road is held too firmly by a multitude of infantry, turn themselves into one of the transverse paths, and, if it is not correctly and diligently guarded, having found a passage there, and being positioned at the flank or rear of the battle lines and surrounding them, they may cause terror.^D

and confusion to the Roman army. But if both are guarded safely, the enemies, either rushing to battle, will be put to shame by God’s help, or, seized by fear, will launch their assault by another path that keeps a distance of many days. And from this, two things will follow for the enemies who have abandoned their baggage and the direct path: one is that they will be worn out by the distance of many days; the other, which even brings destruction upon them, is that they themselves will become faint-hearted and cast down in despair, while the Romans will become more eager and courageous to wage war against them. This has occurred to the unforgettably ruinous Hamdan ^A exactly three times: twice in the times of the praiseworthy and thrice-blessed Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, and once under the good Emperor Romanus, his blessed son. And all men know accurately the slaughter of the enemies of Christ that happened then. Yet the army of the people of Tarsus and the Cilician region was also routed and put to flight in different places in the narrows by the generals who were in charge of the frontier at that time. ^B

CHAPTER IV. In what manner attacks should be made stealthily against the enemies, and how one must encounter the enemies as they return home.

The general must also set this before himself and meditate upon it, and employ every effort to make attacks against the enemies stealthily and unexpectedly, if it is possible. For the general who employs such a stratagem will put to rout many of the enemies even with a small force. And if, as has been shown above, he finds a place in the narrow passes that has the convenience of attacking the enemies from both sides, he ought to descend into battle without any hesitation; and by drawing up the troops under his command well, he will, by God’s help, ^C defeat the enemies mightily. Nevertheless, it is much more expedient and appropriate to attack the enemies not when they are about to set out against Romania, but when they are returning to their own territory from our lands. For then, because of their long delay in the Roman lands, they are greatly exhausted and afflicted. But if by chance they are carrying with them a great quantity of plunder, captives, and livestock, both they themselves and their horses are found to be exhausted at the time of battle, slackened, and they hasten and desire to reach their own territory as quickly as possible. Then, which is the main point, because of the lengthening of time, the forces of the Romans, ^D and not only those who are near the mountain passes,

^A but also those stationed further away, are quickly gathered and assemble in sufficient strength, and are well equipped and prepared for battle. And then, as we have said, both by day and by night, the battle joined against them will have an undoubted victory. Therefore, the commander should never withdraw from them as they return. On the other hand, to want to meet the enemy as they break through in the narrow passes, for the sake of joining battle, is indeed less convenient, and it may well happen that the whole effort falls to nothing, because the infantry cannot be gathered and properly organized so quickly within a few days. Furthermore, which is of the greatest importance, it is more difficult to attack the enemy at that point, as they are still fresh and not yet exhausted by arms. On the other hand, it has the utility and advantage that they become timid, if, as often as they seek to break out, the narrow passes are held by arms, and so they quickly cease their continuous incursions into the Roman provinces. ^B

Cap. V. On the preoccupation of water in the narrow places.

In whatever places of the narrow passes and defiles the commander prepares for battle, if there is a spring gushing water in these places, he should take care that it is occupied by his own army, so that his soldiers may be able to draw water from there. If it flows weakly, he should take care that it is not muddied, from which no small inconvenience and necessity might befall the army. If there is no spring nearby from which the soldiers may obtain drink and refreshment, especially in the summer time, he should command that there be ten skins in every century, by which water may be carried, and at the time of the battle, it may be distributed to those who are fighting in the line for the sake of drink and refreshment. ^C But concerning these things which ought to be set in place in the narrow passes for the sake of fighting, these things are sufficient. And if it should be necessary to join battle by night in such difficult terrain, these too will be very useful. But I will explain about nocturnal fighting in another chapter. Now I shall begin to say by what means you ought to pursue the enemy: a method which, as it is most useful and necessary, so it brings it about that a great multitude of enemies, by a small and seemingly weak force, not only effects nothing, but for the most part, by the will of God, is routed and put to flight. ^D

Cap. VI. On pursuing the equestrian column which makes a predatory incursion, and by what means you may determine the number of its soldiers.

The predatory columns of the enemy, which are called *monocursa* and surge forth from their own borders without infantry...

are accustomed to march with great haste, and never halt, but proceed throughout the entire night; they allow the horses to rest only for a short time, just enough to provide them with fodder. For as a rule, these *monocursa* make their sorties with a very small and select force. They hasten with the greatest speed to reach the villages where they have planned to make their attack and raid. Therefore, when the commander is informed of their sortie by the fire-signal guards and the patrols, he should make haste with great diligence to occupy the frontier villages, sending ahead a tourmarch or some other officer from among the most experienced and capable men, along with a force of select commanders and well-mounted soldiers, in order to meet them and, with experienced judgment, observe them, remain in position, and report to the commander at the location they have reached, and, if possible, inspect and determine the size of their force. For it is possible to count and estimate them not only by direct sighting, but also by their tracks. For when the strength of the grass exists in the wilderness and is trampled by the feet of the pack animals, men who are very experienced can, from this, estimate the number of the troops, even if not accurately; likewise at the crossings of rivers, and still more accurately from their encampments after they have departed from them. The commander, having learned of the arrival of the enemy raiders and having conjectured which villages they intend to raid, should approach them; and once he has hidden himself with his men in a suitable place, and has sent out mounted patrols in every direction, as soon as he is informed of their movements, and they are seen riding out and dispersing, he should sally forth against those who are dispersed, and by attacking them, he will defeat them without difficulty. But if it happens that some of the villagers are captured by them before they set out, and they learn of the commander’s presence and which villages he has occupied, they will not dare to ride out, and will turn back to their own country in haste without having achieved their purpose, having endured nothing but exertion, exhaustion, and hardship. ^C

Chapter VII. On the assembling and movement of the army; and that merchants should be allowed to enter and spy.

If you hear that a great army is being formed and moved, at the time of year when large forces are usually accustomed to gather—that is, in the month of August, for at such a time vast numbers of men from Egypt, Palestine, Phoenicia, and Coele-Syria used to rise up into Cilicia and the regions of Antioch and Aleppo, and, taking up Arabs with them, make an incursion against the Romans in the month of September—at such a time, I say, when the assembly of the enemy's army is about to occur, it is expedient to send out scouts, or what are called *tasinacia*, and as many informants as possible from the number of trustworthy and faithful men. Likewise, it is possible for merchants

^A to feign entry and to cultivate friendship with the powerful emirs of the fortresses bordering our lands; and to write to them, and to send them men with gifts, so that by means of this multi-faceted meddling, the leader may be clearly informed of the plans and deliberations of the enemies, and the multitudes of the [P. 127] gathered camps of cavalry and infantry, and their commanders, and in which regions they intend to make their incursion. Being thus certified of the movement of the army and the path by which he is to break into the territories of the Romans, the leader ought to gather all the troops and advance to the border. He ought to send ahead either a most experienced tourmarch or some other of the great and proven commanders with picked cavalry to go and meet the enemies before they make their entry into our countries, so that they may follow them, remain near them, and report their movements to the general.

CAP. VIII. Concerning the method of observing and pursuing the army.

^B The observation of them is to be conducted in this manner: While the general, with all his forces, proceeds through a convenient and fortified place near the route, and the pagans, with all their livestock, are gathered within towns or, if no towns are available, are driven by plunderers into the most elevated, fortified, and ambush-resistant mountains, one must send out the person assigned to cling to the flank of the enemies around the second or third hour of the day. He, having received the blessing of the general, and after gathering his troop and his grooms, should betake himself to the road by which the enemies are passing. Let him leave his own baggage and camp-followers with the general, and let him carry nothing with him except one day’s provisions, and those sparse: merely hardtack, cheese or salted fish, and fodder for the horses and mules. If he arrives at a village where he may find sustenance and fodder for the beasts of burden, he should ^C refresh his soldiers and horses there until the ninth hour of the day, with pickets posted in higher locations. The commander of the column himself, having climbed a very high vantage point, should observe and watch for the dust and smoke of the enemies, whence he may deduce and make an estimation of where they are passing and where they intend to encamp. For from experienced men, the places where it is expedient to pitch camp are also recognized. When they have understood the location where the adversaries have halted, let them immediately inform the general of this matter. He, with his ^D

own army—clad in breastplates and the so-called *epanoklibana* (which must not be white)—and with each man holding his weapon in his hands, shall begin the march. When the sun is setting and the enemy’s raiders have returned from the camp ^A to their tents, along with the guards [(14)] assigned to protect them, then let him also move in and approach the enemy’s camp. He should march with careful observation, deep attention, and stealth; and he should conceal himself so as not to be seen by the enemies. Once night has fallen, let him arrive near their encampment. If there is a high hill in the place where the enemies have halted—on one side, or even on two—nearby their camp, they will easily guard their watch at that location. For two or three soldiers, dismounting from their horses and climbing the hill on foot, once they have approached the camp, will be able from those high and strongly fortified hills—which offer no easy ascent to the enemies—to see the camp, listen to the voices of the men, and hear the neighing of the horses and mules. Let him also send off four other detachments ^B to take up their positions on horseback on either side of the camp, separated from one another, so that they too may hear the neighing of the horses and mules and the clamor [(15)] of the people. If there is no such fortified hill in the area of the encampment, four detachments should likewise be sent to take their positions quietly on either side of the camp, and provide one another with agreed-upon signals for withdrawal, should that be necessary, whether by whistling, or by word and vocal call. It is also fitting that they be relieved by others, either twice in the night or at least once, so that both they and their horses may rest; and it is fitting that the *tourmarches*, or some other commander, go to relieve them, and inspect where and how they are positioned, and having properly stationed those who are relieving them, return to the place where he had stood before. If ^C a disturbance is heard, signaling movement for a raid, let the four detachments withdraw a little, but let them not go far away; and let them inform the *tourmarches* of the enemy’s departure. He himself must inform the general by what road they began their thrust, and at what hour, so that the general, learning the time and hour of their departure, may be able to make a conjecture as to which villages they might reach by morning. The soldiers sent by the *tourmarches*, wherever he is spending the night, must report to the general that the raiders have departed ^D. If they do not find him himself at that location, but rather the agents left behind by him, it is fitting that those arriving give a call: the agents, having carefully investigated and recognized the voice, [should identify themselves to them].

general, or even lead them to other agents, should the general have perhaps moved again. For he must, whether once or twice in the night, change position for the sake of greater security, so as not to be ambushed by the enemy, and he must have double pickets to guard him securely. ^B

CAP. IX. Concerning the movement of the predatory band, and the pursuit.

The general—having been informed that the predators have departed—must immediately send another officer with selected cavalry, who is to be subordinate to the tumarch following the raiding party, so that he may be guided to him. The one sent must have with him one of those who came from the tumarch to notify the general of the predators' departure, by whom he may be led, so that he may the more easily be able to join the tumarch. The general himself, moving on the track of the officer sent ahead with his own forces, should hasten to reach the tumarch, so that he, too, with the tumarch in the lead, may pursue the enemy's predators. For a diligent and wander-free pursuit must be made from the rear of the enemy, according to their footprints and tracks. The tumarch must advance toward the enemy's line three pairs, composed of skilled and suitable men chosen for this purpose, and these shall place themselves on the road of the enemy; and having instructed the first and second and third pair as to how they ought to march and pursue the enemy, he should return to his own line. ^C Accordingly, the first pair, traveling near the enemy, should listen for the clamor of the multitude and the neighing of the horses. The second pair, taking the place of the first, should advance in such a way that it can both see the one going before it and be seen by it: it should neither approach too closely nor, by falling behind, withdraw from sight. After the three pairs, he shall set up three quads, in such a way that the third pair can be seen by the first quad, and the first pair similarly by the second quad. The third quad, following the second, must have six men; so that two of them may report to the tumarch what is announced by any of the pairs, and the tumarch may report to the general. And if the enemy begins to move more quickly, the first pair must report this fact, so that the tumarch and the general may themselves also march more vigorously and not remove themselves too far from the enemy. If the enemy again moves more slowly, they should proceed more slowly, so that they may neither be recognized by approaching too closely, nor—having advanced too far—be unable to discern the state of those following, nor be discerned by them, which causes singular calamity. Especially, however, when the enemy halts… ^D

^B to feed their horses, let the general—who is warned of this—also halt his own force in a suitable place to feed his horses, sending out scouts for his own protection. And when he is informed of the enemy’s movement, he must immediately proceed to follow them, dispatching cavalrymen in groups of thirty on both sides—not far, but nearby—that they may listen for the cries of his own force. And let him have an officer following behind him with a body of cavalry, whom they call *saka* (17). Let the general travel ^C from a distance (18), taking every precaution not to be discovered as he follows behind them. He must advance safely, and instruct those who follow the enemy closely to keep a sharp lookout, lest the enemy leave ambushes for those trailing them and for the general himself—an event which has often occurred with the Tarsians. For when the *tourmarchs* followed them, failing to closely scout the ravines ahead and the places capable of concealing troops, they unexpectedly fell into their ambushes. Because of this, the one following requires great presence of mind and precision, so that such a thing does not happen. Before dawn, once the general has ^D determined in what places and districts the enemy intends to travel, he must move to the right or left of them, wherever he observes more rugged country. And by marching more swiftly and positioning himself on their flank at a distance of about two miles, before the day breaks—as has been stated—so that the enemy, not seeing the dust, might not recognize the presence of the general, he is to occupy the rugged place and conceal his own force there. Let him then, with a few horsemen, draw closer to the enemy, and ascending a high vantage point, make haste to view the enemy clearly. As they have departed for their excursion and scattered to plunder, let the general remain in his place until the third or fourth hour of the day, so that he may observe the Amir’s battle line and carefully estimate the number of his troops. But when the raiding parties have moved too far from the Amir’s standards—such that they cannot possibly return or notice a battle joined with the Amir’s main line—and as they rush in every direction to occupy villages and take as much plunder as possible, having instructed his own troops appropriately, let him [attack] the Amir’s battle line,

^A seeing that it is lightly manned, and with the cooperation of God, he will gain the victory and inflict complete destruction upon the enemy. But if he does not dare to attack the battle line when he sees that it comprises a numerous and formidable force, let him set off from the flank and from a distance by a hidden and convenient path, and with a rapid advance, with the force that is suitable, let him move to capture those who are dispersed. And let him strive throughout the entire day to harry them while they are scattered, and he will perform a notable feat with the cooperation of God. The commander ought also to have a proven officer with a few horsemen behind him, who may watch and observe the Amir’s battle line and its movements, and report back to him. If the commander encounters a body of the enemy that is numerous, which is acting as a guard for those dispersed for plunder, he should divide his own force into two, and send forward a part to engage in battle with this body. As they are fighting, the commander himself should also immediately follow close behind with his own battle line, and vehemently and ^B courageously, with shouting and clamor, let him rush upon them at full gallop, and with the help of God, he will rout them and pursue them and destroy them utterly. If, with God’s bidding, the commander has conducted the matter well, and, having suppressed the adversaries who had gone out for plunder, he has performed a great and distinguished feat, it is to be believed that the enemy will return home in disgrace. But if they have determined to remain longer in our territory, the commander, having taken his own force, should withdraw further from them—that is, to suitable places where he may refresh his own soldiers, who are exhausted, for three days, sending out daily only those who are tasked with reconnaissance, as we have already explained. But when he has learned that they have moved their standards for the purpose of returning, he should immediately gather his infantry forces by means of a proven officer sent with great speed to the roughest parts of the route, and the commander himself should strive ^D that neither by night nor by day he takes any part of rest, but with the greatest speed let him race ahead of them, and with all his infantry and cavalry forces well prepared, let him arrange the engagement against them, just as we have explained in detail above. If he does this, by the grace of Christ and by the authority and intercession of his immaculate Mother, once battle is joined with the enemy, he will prevail. And thus these things are so.

Chapter X. On the severing of the predatory hand, and on the infantry following from the rear.

Nor will it be irksome to set forth those things which we ourselves have seen. The army of the enemy, both cavalry and infantry, would repeatedly sally forth at the same time from its own borders and towns; and as they were marching together for two days, they...

would separate from one another. The cavalry, desiring to overrun and plunder our territories, would move ahead for a distance of several days, leaving the infantry behind, because they were eager to seize the inhabitants of the villages unaware and remaining at home. The baggage train, with the infantry and their gear, following behind, once they had traversed the defiles and narrow places, would scout a suitable spot for their protection and security, pitch their tents there, and encamp, awaiting the cavalry that had set out for the raid, so that they might lead them back safely through the difficult terrain. The commander, then, upon receiving word of their excursion, should send out detachments to lie in wait and carry out everything according to the aforementioned strategy. And if it is easy for the commander to catch those who have ridden out for plunder while they are dispersed, and to put them to flight, he should hasten to carry this out in action. But if, due to some errors or intervening difficulties, an obstacle presents itself, he should prepare for a battle against the camp; he should carefully examine the place where they have pitched their tents, lest there be a river or stream nearby offering them security. He should prepare himself according to the position of the place, and with great diligence gather the infantry force to himself, if possible.

^B When the commander expects their departure and migration to another camp, or perhaps learns of this from the interrogation of deserters, he ought to send out at night cavalry with leaders who are experienced and proven men, and to prepare two ambushes, one on each side of the road through which the passage of the enemy will take place. From these sent-out troops, he should select one hundred men and station them as a detachment to guard the villages lying near the enemy's path. And the commander himself must stand hidden with all his troops in a suitable place, and from a vantage point observe the transit of the enemy. When the enemy cavalry, searching the villages lying near these for their needs, enters the guarded villages and, having dismounted their horses, begins to rummage through the huts of the villagers, the one hundred cavalrymen stationed in the ambush should make an impression upon them, and immediately—having killed or captured as many as they can—they should betake themselves to flight, rushing along the road passing between the two ambushes, and drawing the enemy into a pursuit. Being pursued, they will cause the enemy to fall into the ambushes. Then those stationed on both sides should burst forth and make a fierce attack upon them, and with their swords they will slay a great number of the enemy.

^C When the commander sees this, he himself, with the greater part of his force, should immediately also urge himself into the line of battle of the enemy with a very sharp charge, and order the remainder of his men to circle around to the backs of the enemy and bring their standards to bear upon them there. And unless some obstacle interferes on account of our sins, they will defeat the enemy. However, if the fighting adversaries are able to offer resistance more stubbornly, and, standing their ground in the same place, they deposit the burdens from their pack animals, and, having created a rampart with many of the articles of baggage, they attempt to form a line of battle, that [process] is indeed a great

^A difficulty for the attack. But nevertheless, the commander must bring up his standards from all sides; and if there is any hope that the infantry, having made a rapid march, can arrive himself on the day of battle, he must see to it that this is done. But if this cannot happen because of the distance, he should order competent men from the cavalry to dismount from their horses, and on foot, together with the [rest of the] cavalry, join battle with the adversaries, using bows, slings, spears, and shields. The commander must also take with him his own pack animals and baggage, if they are at hand, and take up a position closer to the enemy, in order to strike fear and despair into them. ^B And if there is no possibility at all of water in that place, this, too, will not insignificantly disturb their spirits: and even if it does not wipe them out entirely, it will certainly make many of them prisoners, kill and wound many more, and break their arrogant spirit, so that they will no longer dare to make incursions into the regions of the Romans without fear. But if the commander has not learned of their transit from camp to camp—whether from deserters, as I have said, or from captives—so that he could set ambushes in their path by night, he should nevertheless openly lead his army in battle against the enemy when they have set out on the march during the day; unless he has very small and weak forces. For, to speak briefly, an attack on the baggage—since only a few armed horsemen are left as a guard for it—never causes any harm or disadvantage to our army; but whenever fighting has been concluded against it, the Roman army has always both taken many of the enemy and killed them; and it has brought many of the beasts of burden and laden mules under its control. ^C And if, furthermore, the infantry, armed and trained for fighting, can be present on the day of battle, let the commander, according to his duty, arrange the attack against the adversaries, who are surrounded on all sides, and thus reduce them entirely to annihilation. For we have not only seen such things happen against the baggage of the enemy, and also against our own when they were attacked, but we also read [of them] in writers, and we have learned [of them] from our ancestors. Therefore, an attack on the baggage is of great use, because it can bring no detriment or disadvantage at all, but can bring victory and glory in the highest degree. For the Roman army, by invading them, even if it does not achieve its object, will at any rate cause no damage. Likewise, if the enemy stay in the place where they have already sat down, and do not depart from there because of its fortifications, and are awaiting marauders, the commander must nevertheless bring up his standards: ^D lest, while he hesitates, the infantry [of the enemy], having gathered, or for some other reason, the whole marauding band should return among these, and make the whole plan of attack void. And thus the commander ought to attack them. He should scout the villages near the enemy's camp that are subject to guards; let him hide a chosen body of cavalry there in a suitable place under a very experienced and brave officer.

^A For when they come inside them to forage, they should attack them. Let other horsemen be assigned to an ambush to provide help and aid to those sent ahead: if the enemy wants to pursue them, they themselves will willingly charge against them and, having put them to flight, pursue them, because those horsemen who are left for the protection of baggage trains are always very few in number. If the enemies do not enter the villages at all—although this can hardly happen—let the commander order the scouts sent by him, who are experienced men, to observe by which part of the camp the adversaries lead their camels to pasture. Then let him designate either a tourmarch or a good deputy ^B with some sturdy horsemen; let them, having found a stream if a suitable one is nearby, creep into it and hide until they have approached closer; then, appearing, let them make an attack on the camels. The party sent out must be divided into two: so that one half drives away the grazing camels and donkeys, while the other remains in a station to provide aid for the protection and defense of the former. But if a group of the enemy acting as sentries before the camp runs into the camel-rustlers, or if cavalry flies out from the camp and pursues our men, those who are standing as reserves will defeat them. And at the same time, the commander, who is not far off but nearby ^C in an ambush, should come out against them: and just as he sees the battle joined, so let him organize the matter, either to rush headlong against the enemies or, if those sent from his hand have the upper hand, to advance in ordered and closed ranks to assault the camp. Thus, having brought out all the forces of horse and foot and having perceived the situation of the region, let him assign specific locations for each number of cavalry and infantry and, with the siege surrounded by a circle if possible, let him initiate the attack. If a river or stream is nearby, as we said above, which might offer defenses to the enemy like a trench, but permits passage in any way, let him lead armed men across it as well. Let him also see to it that the tents of the army are pitched to make it clear that he wants to establish a camp there, so as to terrify his adversaries: when these matters have been settled, let him advance the standards. And if he conducts the assault rightly, in good order, and vigorously, he will conquer magnificently. But if he cannot rout them the first day, because they resist with diligence and are strong in infantry, and at the same time are helped by the layout of the terrain, it is still necessary to encamp nearby ^D and summon greater infantry forces. At night, let it be his care that both the light-armed troops and the slingers throw missiles at the enemy: also that as many fires as possible be made in a circle around them: and let him exhort the light-armed troops to bravery and boldness, so that when the battle is joined in close quarters they may throw themselves into the fray until they have broken into the enemy's camp, and in the night have plundered horses, mules, and goods, having caused great wounding and slaughter of the enemies. And in general, if anything of this kind happens by the grace of God from one quarter, and it is seen or understood by the remaining battle lines, these too will rush with contempt of death to make plunder, inflamed by the hope of gain, and the enemies, by the grace of God...

they will conquer with little effort. But if perhaps, due to certain errors and adverse events, the commander does not destroy them completely, he will at least capture and slaughter their mules, and the soldiers will obtain much booty. While the commander is managing these things regarding the siege of the camps, it is necessary that a prefect be sent from the number of the upright and experienced men with forty cavalry, to guard the road by which the enemy's predatory band is to return. If he sees them returning toward their camps, and the troop they call the *veredum* [advance guard]—as is the custom of the Tarsites—approaching closer, he must immediately notify the commander sent to the watch that the predators are arriving. If he sees the *veredum* proceeding far ahead of the main body of the predators, ^B he should send an upright prefect with picked cavalry, who, if possible, may make an unexpected attack upon it, and he will overcome it with no effort. If it is closer and precedes the main body of the predators at a smaller interval, he should not send anyone against the *veredum*; but rather let him be content with those things which God has granted him in the siege of the camps: with all his forces, having turned his standards, let him seize suitable and more fortified places. Then, when the enemy army has crossed the difficult terrain with the intention of awaiting the arrival of the predators, so that it may lead what has been seized by them—whether slaves or livestock—safe and sound through the difficult places: the commander must take care to get ahead of them, to occupy the narrow passes with all his infantry and cavalry forces, and to manage the battle against them more skillfully, as we have shown above. And let them never be allowed to return without a fight. For if the commander draws up the battle correctly in the narrow passes, he will defeat them completely. But if, deprived of a large and firm infantry force, he cannot completely rout them, at least he will liberate those whom they are leading into slavery (even if perhaps not all), and he will both wound not a few of the enemies and take them prisoner. ^C

If, however, there is a river, ^A or a torrent, as we stated above, instead of an abatis guarding the enemy, if it in any way admits a crossing, one should station the people there too. Let him prepare to set up their tents there, so as to show that he intends to camp there, for the purpose of unseating them, and thus wage the war. And if he organizes the matters of the war well and bravely, it will turn out successfully. But if he is unable to rout them on the first day, owing to their being strong and resisting, and having an infantry force, and being assisted by the nature of the terrain, he must remain there with them and call for more infantry. And in the night let him prepare the light-armed troops and slingers against them, ^B and kindle many fires around them; and let him encourage the light-armed troops bravely to engage at close quarters and fight, until they enter among the undisturbed enemy, and seize their horses and mules and whatever things they can in the night, continually striking and killing the enemy. And if at all by the help of God such a thing happens, and it is seen and recognized by the others, they shall charge—even against death—in the hope of booty, and encouraged by the prospect of gain, and will easily overcome them, by the grace of God. But if he does not completely rout them owing to some chance errors and mishaps, nonetheless he will destroy many of them and take much booty. ^C Thus, while the commander is executing the matters of the camp, one should send a commander of the efficient and experienced men with forty cavalry, from afar, to guard the road by which the predator [enemy raider] troop intends to turn back. And when he sees them coming toward their camp, and in front of them—as is the custom of the Tarsites—the troop they call a *veredum* [dispatch-rider/advance guard] coming out near them, he must immediately notify the commander stationed at the watch. And if the commander sent to the watch sees the *veredum* coming from a great distance from the main body of the raiding troop, he shall send a commander of the efficient men with picked cavalry to make an attack against them, if possible, unexpectedly, and he will easily overcome them. But if it keeps close and near, walking in front of the raiding troop, he should not send against them, but let him be content with what God has helped him with for the war against the camp, and return with all the people, taking possession of suitable and more fortified places. Since the enemy's camp has for this reason passed through all the difficult passages, expecting the arrival of the raiding troop, so that it may save the items held by the raiding troop—whether slaves or livestock—leading them in safety through the difficult passages, the commander must strive to be in front of them and to seize the narrow passes with all the people, infantry and cavalry, and more carefully organize the war against them, as has been shown above. And let them never be left without a fight when returning. For if he handles the war well in the difficult passages, he will greatly rout them. But if, because he does not have a large and significant infantry force, he is unable to rout them significantly, at least he will rescue those whom they took prisoner (even if not all) and will both wound not a few of the enemies and take some of them prisoner.

Chap. XI. In narrow places, the infantry must stand on both sides of the road.

^A The general must also strive to rout the enemies in another way, even if the force around him is small. He should scout out a suitable and very strong place, or something like a fortress, that is nearby, so that it may be possible for that naturally fortified place to be occupied by infantry, and for the foot soldiers to be hidden in ambush on both sides of the road. The general should station himself with the cavalry behind the infantry, as close as possible to the foot soldiers. ^B Both the cavalry ambush and the infantry close to him should be positioned almost united at the rear. Let select men—up to a hundred—be sent out by the general into ambush, mounted on swift horses, having a brave and most experienced leader who knows an opportune place in which he might hide his own force. Let him occupy such a place at night and hide his men well. When it is dawn, let him climb to a watchpoint and look to see where the enemies are heading if they are on the move. If he sees them advancing for plunder and scouting the villages in order to collect booty, money, and whatever else they might be able to find, let him hold back until he observes them dismounting from their horses and searching through the villages. ^C Then, from the cavalrymen who are around him—whether 70 or 60, that is to say, more in number than it is certain the enemies have (for the number of the cavalry in the general's force must necessarily be greater than that of the adversaries)—let him order these to attack the opponents with a brave dash and the swiftest speed of their horses, and with God’s help, the affair will go well. But if it happens that they are pursued by the enemies, it is necessary to meet them with the forty who remain in reserve, and either kill the prisoners if any have been taken, or send them away, so that they might depart immediately and be brought into the fortified place. The general, however, managing the battle skillfully and resisting the enemies, and at times turning against them and at times feigning flight, shall provoke them to pursue. And if they pursue up to the places where the infantry are hiding, and some of the enemies pass these places, then the infantry, emerging from their hiding places, will confront the pursuing enemies and push them back. The enemies who have passed beyond the infantry will fall into the cavalry's ambush and all will be destroyed ^D utterly. For assisted by the terrain, the infantry will not allow the pursuers to break through; therefore, having abandoned the pursuit, they will all depart with their mission unaccomplished, having lost as many of their own men as are already surrounded within the narrow passes.

Chap. XII. Concerning a sudden incursion of the enemies before the Roman forces can be gathered.

If a sudden and sharp incursion of the enemies occurs, which in the case of

^A many often happens before the royal forces have gathered, and only the commander is present—and even he, because of the speed of their onset, has not been able to summon even the small number of troops from his own theme, but has few and countable men with him—he sees the enemies hastening and pressing forward to plunder. He must identify the region toward which they are driving their onset, which has not yet been ravaged or moved into cities or fortified places. He must dispatch either the tourmarch or other officers with great speed into such a region, that they may meet the enemies and, as much as they are able, rouse and expel the pagans and their livestock from the fields.

But if the commander sees that the enemies are already likely to attack the villages at daybreak, he must follow behind them, as we have demonstrated above, and present himself to the enemies that same night, drawn up for battle; so that in this way he may restrain their onset and keep the region unharmed. And if there is a river on the path that the enemies must cross, or a defile or difficult road, once the majority of them have crossed the river or ^B become entangled in the defiles, he should send some men into their rearguard. It is expedient for the commander himself to approach closer with the officers, mounted on choice and reliable horses, to show himself to the enemies and prepare to fight against them, just as if he were about to join battle immediately; however, he should separate the grooms and foragers from himself and send them off into fortified places or a town, if one happens to be nearby.

But if there is no river or difficulty of roads on the path, he must nevertheless show some boldness and threaten an attack, until he can harass them by night, so that when the enemies clearly perceive that the commander is following them, they may be daunted and not dare to proceed further or make an incursion into the villages. If this happens, the commander will protect and deliver the villages from the imminent ^C invasion and servitude. He should, however, perform this display and pressure with great diligence and providence, through a few and choice horsemen, as we have taught, who may return with a swift flight to the commander and the fortified place, and not rush against the enemy in a disorganized manner or more than is necessary. For if too large a force, in proportion to their strength, presses upon them, they will perhaps quickly become prey to the enemy hand; this is especially so if it happens that there is a full moon at night. But if the night is moonless and dark, they will accomplish the deed without any harm to themselves, and they will certainly obtain one of two things: either they will ensure that the enemies do not go out to plunder at all, or, if they do so, that they certainly do not go out until the sky is turning fully white, and then only a few ^D at most. For most men, because of the commander’s…

fear of the Emir’s battle line, will not depart. And if the commander acts in this way, the inhabitants of the villages will escape into the fortifications and castles, and be preserved unharmed.

CAP. XII. On ambushes to be laid against those called mensuratores (camp-measurers) in the locations of the camps.

If the enemies, having established their camp, are plundering our provinces and do not send out their raiders very far, but keep themselves guarded, you must endeavor to harm them by some other stratagem. It is necessary to reconnoiter and form a conjecture, both as to which side the enemy’s camp is on, and where they intend to measure out their camp the next day. If this place is quite far from the camp—at the sixth mile, or the tenth, or further—so that the length of the journey might make them and their pack animals weary, you should, after making an inspection near the place where they are to pitch camp, find a suitable hiding spot and conceal there three hundred chosen, able-bodied horsemen, or even fewer. In a secondary ambush, you will place your entire army in a suitable location that has a fortification for protection. If there is a town nearby, that also contributes greatly to your safety and advantage. And if the infantry are needed, they can emerge from the town, to fight alongside you and bring aid. ^B But if, as happens, some of the hostile army run ahead to capture the place where they will set up camp—whom the Romans are accustomed to call *mensuratores*—and they are occupied with this work, those whom you stationed nearby in the first ambush should quickly burst forth upon them with a great charge, and with the help of God, strike them down. And if the enemies pursue them as far as the place where you have set up your more secure ambush, you will attack them with manly and valiant force, defeat those pursuing, and raise a trophy worthy of memory over them. Finally, if it happens that huge forces of the enemy attack and resist you, nonetheless, because you have the advantage both of the fortification and of the infantry, you will confound them and cause them to return with their mission unaccomplished, having lost many of their own. ^C

CAP. XIV. On the departure of the cavalry from the infantry, with whom they had been traveling together.

You must also consider this carefully, O commander, and—if the enemies, without your knowledge, are eager to send out raiders and plunder our provinces—keep your mind alert, lest their plan and stratagem escape you. For what I am about to say, they have carried out elsewhere as well. When their cavalry and infantry are traveling together with the baggage train, just as they did on the days before and those that have passed, the…

^A baggage and the service personnel, together with the infantry, are left to guard them, and they pitch their tents according to their custom. But those who are prepared to make a raid and who intend to ravage our lands, set out for a raid towards evening, so that their dust may not be seen, and they launch their raid at dusk. ^B Those who are required to remain with the enemy’s camp, whether it be a tourmarch or some other officer, must move forward with their own men to the place where they are encamped. Since night is falling, they ought then, according to custom, to enter and approach their tents after the first or second hour of the night. But if the enemy’s cavalry are no longer in the camp, having already set out for a raid, it is certainly not possible for the officers to whom the observation has been entrusted to perceive this correctly and announce the truth to the commander, unless by the method I shall now explain. ^C It is fitting that those who are sent daily for observation should take from the leader two of the most experienced and bravest of those, who have been sent to observe the camp on previous days and who have been stationed in the quadrigae, as we have demonstrated above; so that they may be accurately instructed by them as to what each one did and saw earlier. The tourmarch should send these two, taken from one of the four quadrigae, to observe according to the previously exposed logic, so that, approaching the ^D camp, they may listen for the voices of the enemy and the neighing of their pack animals. There, those two soldiers, who have already observed the enemy in other camps when all their forces were pitched together, will be able to form a conjecture both from the roar and noise of the multitude, from the neighing of the horses, and finally from the space which they occupy with their tents. For the place will not be found to have a third of the extent that it had in the previous camps, when all were pitched together. Hence, it is possible to make an estimate and understand that the forces are lacking to the enemy in that place, and that they have not remained with them in the camp. For how can it be that they do not notice this, when some six thousand men and—up to—twelve thousand horses are absent from the camp, which those who recently observed it saw gathered together and counted? Nevertheless, so that all doubt may be removed and the scouts may perceive the perfect truth in this matter, the tourmarch who has been sent to observe ought to arrange these things besides: he should deploy eight horsemen from the most experienced, who are thoroughly acquainted with the roads, to move either from the right or from the left as a reserve, where the tourmarch has taken his stand, and to cross over past the enemy's camp until they are five hundred paces distant from the tents; as they advance, they must pay diligent attention and search for the paths. But if the enemy's cavalry has already passed by, and they were about two hundred, the station will nevertheless recognize their transit, even if they numbered up to twelve thousand.

For the tracks of such a number of horses, having recently passed through, will be clearly recognized by the scouts, and they shall quickly return to the turmarch to report this, and by which path they made their advance. The turmarch shall immediately report this with great speed to the general, and by which path they traveled. The general must deliberate upon these matters with the commanders who are with him, and the other experienced men. And if he sees that his own army has the strength to engage in battle with the enemy force, he should prepare himself for the fight against them; at least if his infantry forces are close by and can unite with him on the same day. But if the place where the enemies have encamped has a fortification that serves as a bulwark for them, or a stream that is difficult to cross, it is not proper to engage in a struggle against them.

^B But if the ground is level on all sides, and especially if his infantry can reach him on the day of the engagement, he should prepare himself for combat. But if the place has a fortification, as we have said, and the infantry forces are absent, he must move more quickly to crush the enemy raiders, and send a capable commander to follow the tracks of those who have set out to raid the enemy. The general himself, with all his troops, should hasten to approach by an oblique path at a rapid pace, as he knows the roads upon which the enemies are traveling. He should make this journey with great caution. Then, at the approach of first light, ^C he should send out scouts who will inquire about the enemies: these, having climbed high hills, should take pains to observe them. When it is daylight, the general should hide his troops, lest, by raising their dust, he might rather fall into the ambushes of his adversaries. Then, having been informed either by those who followed the raiders, or by those whom he sent out for the purpose of observation and scouting, as to where that enemy standard is—that under which their commander is—the general, taking a few men with him, should ascend to a high lookout and attempt to observe the enemy line with his own eyes. Once this has been observed, and having seen where their multitude has spread out to raid, he should estimate, in comparison with those who are together, both the forces standing in the enemy battle line and the strength of his own force. If his own army is larger than the enemy's, he should urge it against them, as we have described above; and if, with God providing aid, he can strike down and rout their battle line, he will surely perform a great deed worthy of memory. But if huge forces have stood under the enemy standards, the general ought to take care to move further on, to the villages ^D which the adversaries have invaded, so that he may come up behind them. If he catches them dispersed and exhausted by the course—both the men themselves and their pack animals—he will slay them with no difficulty throughout that entire day, and he will hunt them through the villages: he will hold them as if they were a count of slaves, and he will deal with them by his own judgment. He will deliver the peasants, and whatever of their goods they have already been able to seize, from servitude. If, however, he encounters a compact formation,

let the commander who is following ^A prepare himself for the battle against that compact formation, just as we have explained above, and by the help of God, he will gain the victory in the battle. But if the enemy have made an encounter in the night, and have not yet been able to forestall them or reach the places where they could watch the scouts, and the noise of them went before them, as I have said, before he could have received certain confirmation of the truth of this; and it happened from such an encounter that the commander was delayed and waited for the reliable report of the matter to be sent to him, and the message sent to the commander was confirmed about the ninth hour of the night or later—the commander sees the narrowness of the time, and since the raiding party of the enemy was still prevailing in the day, he made a movement, and since it was not possible for them to get far during the night, nor possible for them to be ^B prepared for battle [P. 144] in the place where they are encamped, let him be prepared both for the battle, as we explained above should be done against a compact formation. But they will not stay all day in that same place, because they hasten to join their cavalry forces that are raiding more quickly. And the commander, falling in with those who are marching, will eagerly charge into battle against them, as we have explained before concerning the marching compact formation. And doing everything carefully, the commander, having the help of God and his holy and immaculate Mother, the Theotokos, will perform a great and memorable service. ^C

CAP. XV. Concerning caution.

^A For it happens that some of our men are taken captive or desert, and from these, the enemy learns where you are heading. Therefore, for fear that they might take up their horsemen by night to attack you and catch you unawares, you must have scouts who, as soon as they hear the noise of a multitude departing among the enemy, report it immediately with great haste, so that the troops may rise and prepare for departure. Furthermore, once they have set out, they must declare by which road they are traveling, and finally, it must be reported how great a force has gone out, and from which side, and whether they are all together with the infantry, or if they are horsemen alone. Yet the commander should not put his faith solely in the signals made by the scouts, but should also have double, and sometimes even triple, stations ^B—both outer and inner—in order to guard by night the roads and places through which he suspects the enemy might break out, and by day, so that the sentries may not only watch the paths but also climb to the highest places, from which they can see without any difficulty not only smoke and dust, but also the bodies of the enemy, should they be coming. We have said that there should be many sentries so that, if one station is intercepted by the adversaries, the one that remains behind may see the enemy and be able to report their arrival to the commander. The commander ought to change his station twice every night and as many times a day. While migrating, he should take the sentries with him, but at the place from where he moved, let him leave six or eight soldiers—whom we call *hypodocharioi* ^C—together with some good officer, so that if messengers sent by the scouts arrive, they may be brought to the commander through them. The commander himself, once he has settled in a new place, should again send out outer stations from there. Let there be four soldiers in each station, so that while two are sleeping at night, two may be able to keep watch. Let there be four men at every mile, so that while two are sleeping at night, two are on watch.

Chapter XVI. On the removal of baggage train.

You must also observe this, O commander: when you wish to approach closer to the enemy, you must send the baggage train far away from you into a fortified place or a town, entrusting their care to a man of integrity and experience. To him, some capable horsemen should also be assigned, through whom the guard for the protection of the baggage may be maintained ^D. If you should need it again, command the officer entrusted with their care to move to the place where he was ordered to join you. In thus sending away the baggage, you must take with you rations for the soldiers and fodder for the pack animals for two or three days, which may be carried either by swift mules or upon horses in saddle-bags. But when you wish to pursue the raiders of the enemy by night, all the soldiers, as many as you have fit for fighting, must be armored, and each one must have in his hands a weapon suitable for battle. Have also the group that we call *saka* following behind. If the enemy makes their journey through difficult places

^A or through places where there are enemy troops, you must direct each theme or standard that is present to march separately: the general in front, and the *turmarch* following the enemy at a good distance. Thus, the rest—whether they are themes or standards—should follow in order, so that they may travel even by night without noise or clamor. And the *turmarch* who is following the enemy, as a scout, should report [to you] and be extremely careful and vigilant, lest the enemy notice that they are being followed by you, and detach their own fighting men—the majority of their force—and hide them in ambush ^B to fall upon you unexpectedly—a type of ambush by the Tarsians, such as we saw in the aforementioned places. For the dust raised by those [troops] being observed at that time is not real, but a ruse of the scout; they are few in number and of inferior quality, and they go forth themselves, and the *turmarch* who is following the scout, having been negligent and not having searched the hiding places, falls unexpectedly into them. [P 147] Therefore, so that such a thing does not happen, you, O general, must take great care and search the hollows of the places and the hidden areas ^C, having cavalrymen who have quick horses and accurate information about the places. And regarding the arrangement, divide the army in two, if the number is three thousand 63. And you must send the ones who are accompanying the horsemen's baggage, and the baggage itself, further along to a fortified place.

And you must prepare the lines of battle as follows, against the unexpected ambushes of the enemies. And if the first [line] has at its head the most capable generals, and the third part of the infantry, and behind them the *turmarch* marches—you, with the great battle line, follow the first [line], having the *saka* behind you with a few cavalrymen—if it happens that the enemy lies in ambush for you ^D and positions their fighting men in the hidden areas, and goes to attack the *turmarch* who is following them, that *turmarch* will receive them [the enemy], and the first [line] which is marching before you will come to his aid and receive them. Then, after the battle has been joined with them, when the enemies, having been scattered by the fighting, have broken their ranks, you will conquer the dispersed forces completely. If the enemies are not preparing such ambushes, but are hastening to a raid and the plundering of the countryside, you must before dawn conceal the troops of your army in such places where they cannot be noticed by the enemies, and remain in these hiding places until the third or fourth hour of the day, until the enemies have dispersed to plunder. When these have moved far enough from the standards of the Emir, so that with few soldiers left they are poorly armed, invade them, and send out three battle lines with an aligned front, which shall capture the battle; you, following the first ones with the other three or four battle lines, shall approach more closely. When the first battle lines have engaged in hand-to-hand combat, just as you see your own men fighting, so provide support. And first, indeed, the battle lines on both sides of you

^A should be sent forward to engage with the enemy, and if possible, to attack from the flank and fight at close quarters. Then you yourself, if necessary, should charge, if the enemy has not already become the superior force. [P. 148] But after a short time, as we have said, the battle line of the Emir being dispersed, the army numbered under your command will not be able to resist three thousand men. But we set these things forth ^B as experience teaches; you must act according to the urgent necessity and the circumstances of the time. For it is not theory that delivers the result, but according to how the divine help will strengthen you, so the outcome of the arms will follow. If you are with only the troops of your own theme, O commander, and the army under you is small, you must likewise act with caution, tracking the enemy’s raid from afar, so as not to be detected by them, and make your attack only upon those who have ridden out into the countryside and become scattered, as has been declared above.

CAP. XVII. Concerning enemies invading our provinces with great forces, and the method of warring by ambuscades.

If, however, the entire mass of the enemy, both cavalry and infantry, ^C having emerged with a great and heavy force, invades our provinces and plunders them, and resolves to penetrate deep into them and explore them; and if it happens that at the same time the Roman army is gathered in one place, and the enemy hears of its presence, they guard their own army with great care, not allowing anyone to be scattered through the villages without a guard. Nay, they even contrive to lay ambushes for our forces, and they hasten to seize them unexpectedly, to chase them down, and to defeat them. You must also yourself demonstrate every caution, so as not to be caught unexpectedly by them, but rather to devise counter-measures to turn the tables on them, and to perform some noble and significant deed. For when they have once received a defeat at your hands, they will not linger in our territories in order to carry off plunder. Therefore ^D it is fitting for you to examine suitable places into which the enemy outriders enter in the hope of [finding] food and spoils, and to station a cavalry ambush in them, so as to attack them. Let the cavalry who are sent for the ambush be more than two hundred, having a brave commander, and [P. 149] one most experienced in such ambushes. The commander of the entire army, provided he has five or six thousand good cavalrymen and the help of God, will not have need of more. Dividing these in two, therefore, let him station two thousand in advance in a suitable hiding place, where there is an elevated watchpoint, having a vantage point so that soldiers who are driven and pursued from afar can be seen. Behind these two thousand, the other

three thousand ^A should be placed, along with the infantry troops in an area that provides cover, provided that the terrain offers fortification. If by chance there is a castle nearby, it will also provide them with aid. But the commander should not even have this in mind, nor, if he is struck by a large number of enemies attacking him and a fierce battle arises, should he retire into the castle to save his own men. For this brings not only disgrace and contempt, but also calamity and total destruction to the province. Rather, he should stand firmly with his infantry in the fortified places near the castle, if he is hard-pressed by necessity: he would have there, along with the defensive force of the castle infantry, help coming to his aid. ^B The commander of the three hundred who were sent to keep watch over the villages, when posted at the watchtower he sees that the enemies have descended from their horses and are roaming through the villages of the pagans, should send ahead a little more than a hundred from his group of three hundred, with orders to charge the adversaries. But those who are sent must be more numerous than the enemies who have entered the villages. These, by the grace of Christ, will attack the invaders and kill many and take them prisoner. Those who remain from that troop, for as many as the enemy managed to escape, should pursue them keenly until, in the groups of the enemy, the soldiers disposed for their protection are stirred up. Seeing these pursuers, the commander of the three hundred, provided they are not in great number, but are rushing in disorder and recklessly, should wait in ^C his hiding place until those who are fleeing from his own soldiers arrive and have passed by. Then he himself, falling upon the enemy from his ambush, will perform the task with his own hand and by the power and grace of Christ. For he will strike them down and wound many, and take them prisoner; however, if the enemies are increasing in number, and those pursuing ^D our men are powerful and keep riding hard, those who are brave and excellent, and with horses that can be ridden, should carry out a turning maneuver and strike the pursuers, so that they may save their own as wounded men; or, if they are able to mount their own horses and use flight, they should carefully pursue them until the enemy groups who are standing for the protection of their companions have dispersed. Seeing those pursuing the three hundred not to be a great crowd, but following in a disordered and reckless manner, he should hold his ground in his hiding place until those who are being pursued by them have passed by. Then, in this way, bursting forth from the ambush, he should charge with great force against the enemies, and with the power and grace of Christ he will succeed. He will take them as captives, and will strike and wound many. Therefore, when the enemies are pressing upon him further, and increasing in their aggression, and are fiercely pursuing, those who are captured and restrained, along with their horses and weapons, should be sent frontward, to reach the place where the commander stands. And he should retreat in good order with those who are with him, provoking the enemies to pursue and drawing them along; but no one of his own men should know in which places the general's ambushes are set, except only their commander. If the enemies attack him with a crowd and pursue recklessly, those who are brave and very noble should make a turnaround, and with horses that are fit—

^A and fresh, they should strike at the pursuers, in order that they may rescue the wounded of their own people, and mount others who are exhausted or are being struck, and cause them to be saved. Thereafter, by slacking their reins, they should ride away a little distance from the pursuers with a gallop, so that they may be slightly relieved of the weight of the pressing enemies, and they—those driving their horses for the pursuit—may be rendered sluggish and disheartened. When those of our people who were being pursued approach the place of the ambush, they should pass by, whether to the right or to the left, so that the enemy coming out from the ambush does not meet them in that same place and they cause harm to each other. After that, those who were being pursued should turn back, together with those who are in the ambush with them. And from two sides [the energy] of their assault coming against the enemies, this will also be ^B for the benefit of our people.

Let the place of the ambush be suitable for hiding them well; the exit should by no means have narrowness or difficult terrain, but should be level and spacious, not at all hindering the rush and sharp attack against their enemies, especially if they are around two thousand in number. For because of such a number, the exit from a place of this kind must be wide and straight. And the observation post where the leader of the people in the ambush stands watching should be suitable, so that he can see the pursuing enemies from a great distance, and estimate the amount of their people, and understand how they are conducting the pursuit. When those who are pursuing approach the ambush, having called upon the help of God, they should rush against them with a sharp, most vigorous, and strenuous assault, with shouting and loud cries. The ones being pursued should also turn back; and from two sides [P. 154] the assault made against the enemies will turn out to the benefit of our army. And if all things are carried out in accordance with the present order, having above all else the help of God also co-operating with them, the destruction and slaughter of the enemies that will occur, those who have had experience of such things well know. For how, indeed, when the horses are exhausted by the long and intense pursuit, and the men have failed from the ^C labor of battle, will the ultimate evils not happen to them?

But if—which is entirely unhoped for—the enemies are strong enough to resist, all their force having arrived in such a conflict, and a hard battle occurs with them fighting with their whole army, because their defeat had to be recalled, and this happens as a second consideration: the commander of the army must, by some signal and arrangement and a retreat-sounding trumpet, separate his own men from the hand-to-hand battle, giving their backs (only not with galloping and disorderly flight, but orderly), and irritate the enemies to pursue. When the enemies press on, those fleeing, having passed by from one side of the hiding-place, as we said, where the greater ambush has risen up against the enemy, they themselves also should immediately turn back, and hostile banners should be brought against the adversaries on both sides: which will be of great help to the army. If the followers, having advanced as far as the ambush, rush into it rashly, our men, leaping out from the side against them with an audacious and strenuous onset, by the grace of Christ will magnificently overcome them, and they will attain great glory. But if, because of some errors, they could not completely shatter the ranks of the enemies, because they were fighting fiercely with an infinite multitude and all their gathered forces, nevertheless, because you have infantry bringing their standards up at the same time, you will manage affairs better than they. And even if you do not overcome them completely, at the very least you will finish off many of them with the sword, you will reduce more into servitude, for ^D

^A you will strike great fear into them so that they will no longer dare to run about the countryside and ravage it, but will rather make haste to reach their own territory. These things, then, are what those before us have handed down to us, and what we ourselves have put together from the experience of long time. But it is fitting for you to be prepared for the contingency that happens to be likely. For it is not the wills of men, but supreme Providence that weighs each thing, and thus the outcomes of warfare ensue.

Chapter XVIII. Concerning the fact that, when the commander must pursue the enemy, he ought to divide his force.

If the enemy linger, even though this is hardly to be believed of those who are so badly off, and with their camp established they burn your lands and ravage them with pillaging, and they do not dare to send their soldiers too far away for the sake of foraging, the general ought to send off a capable force to the other side where he himself is not present, and whatever shall wander three or four miles from the camp, he ought to attack and harass from two sides and prevent them from foraging, and thus they will be compelled by want of food to return home. And if you see, commander, that the enemies are guarding themselves and are not going off too far for the collection of provisions, but are sending out those who make the ambush, you must consider the bands of the enemy ^C who have gone out too far from the camp to guard the provisions. Of these, if anyone lingers awaiting his comrades while others are off scouting villages near the camp, hurry to surround this group. And by employing scouts familiar with the enemy, you will be able to penetrate their group where it is stronger by making ambushes against the adversaries with a larger number of picked cavalry; and you should order a few of your own men to put on rustic clothes; let these be mixed with some of the pagans and farmers. All of them must be unarmed, with heads bare, and some even barefoot ^D; all must ride horses, carrying short wooden sticks while feigning to be farmers; and by thus deceiving the enemy and giving them confidence, so that they believe them to be not soldiers but certain pagans who are called guards of the borders. And when you pick out a detachment of your own men of proven strength, place a brave and experienced leader over them, and command him to pick out a few of those under him—only a few—who wear the rustic clothes to mix with them, and all should be unarmed, with heads bare, and some even barefoot, and on horseback.

^A Nor should they be more than twenty. Let him bring them into the villages, six at a time, or even more, so that they are not far apart from each other, and let them have beasts of burden in the villages themselves, whether these be cattle like oxen, or horses and mules. Let him command these, at about the eleventh hour of the day, to show themselves to the enemy, and from village to village to run about in a panic and make a great show of acting as if they wish to retrieve their own cattle and drive them into fortified places. The enemy, keeping watch in groups, when they observe these men partly dragging their cattle along and partly driving them ahead of them, thinking they are farmers and peasants, will pursue them in a scattered and reckless manner. Those who have taken on the persona of guards and farmers, if they are harassed, will hasten to reach the place where the hidden troops have taken their position: the enemy, pursuing them, will inadvertently fall into the ambush. For when they have approached them, our men, with a calm mind and coordinated movement, should rise up and meet them. ^B It is evident that in such a situation the enemies will not resist for even a moment; but, turning their backs, many of them will fall and be taken prisoner. If, however, the enemy's line of battle is nearby where these things are taking place, and the main body of the enemy's force pours forth in great numbers to protect their own men who are fleeing, the commander should place a second force to the rear of these ambushes in a suitable location, in a hiding place that is two miles distant from the first ambush. And if, as we have said, the enemy's force pursues the soldiers of the first ambush, those who are in the second hiding place, flying out upon them, will both save their fellow soldiers and inflict loss and death upon the adversaries. ^C This stratagem, O commander, you ought to employ toward sunset: so that, even if the enemy's force presses hard upon those in the ambush, the coming of night will break off the battle and keep your men safe.

Chap. XIX. On the status, equipment, and training of soldiers.

But if they dare to scatter as marauders, you must use skill and energy to invade them, having sent one of those who serve under you—a man endowed with virtue and experience—with an armed force sufficient to pursue, kill, and take prisoner the scattered enemies. However, do not break up your own battle line: so that if it happens that you encounter groups of the enemy that are significant in number, who have pursued the marauders for the sake of protection, you will have your own line drawn up and will join battle with that group like a skilled and experienced commander, as we have explained, so that you may defeat them and utterly destroy them to a man. ^D These things, O commander, we have advised for the sake of preserving your own safety and that of your soldiers, if your own forces are small and meager, and the enemy's forces are more numerous.

^A But if your fighting force numbers about five or six thousand, you should strive rather to draw them up in formation against the enemy. And if you employ mechanical strategies and skillful maneuvers—and, if the occasion requires, even unexpected attacks upon them—and if you wage war against them both intelligently and expertly, with the invincible aid of Christ our God helping you in the fight, you will erect great trophies of victory over the enemy. Yet it is not possible for you to prepare yourself for war in a commanding and learned manner unless you have first drilled and trained the force under you, accustoming and exercising it both in the handling of weapons ^B and in enduring the severity and hardship of labors and trials, so that they do not surrender themselves entirely to softness, sloth, drunkenness, luxury, and other vices. It is also fitting that they receive full rations and provisions, and furthermore, donatives and gifts beyond those customary and prescribed, so that, having satisfied their needs from these, they may be able to procure for themselves the finest horses and the rest of their armor, and may be willing, with joyful minds and a prepared and eager spirit, to expose themselves to danger on behalf of our holy emperors and the entire Christian commonwealth. ^C But the best and most necessary thing of all—that which excites their alacrity, increases their virtue, and ultimately spurs them on to attempt even the seemingly impossible—is that not only their own houses and those of the soldiers serving under them, but even all their dependents, should enjoy immunity from all burdens. This custom was maintained from the beginning in ancient times regarding them, and persisted; you will find this same thing both declared and written in the military books of those holy and blessed emperors of old. Besides immunity, it is also necessary that they receive their due honor, and that they not be held in contempt or suffer injury. For I am ashamed to say that men of this sort, ^D who count their very lives as nothing so long as they perform their duty to the holy emperors and liberate and avenge the Christians, are even beaten—and that by wretched tax-collectors who contribute no benefit to the state, except only that they despoil and crush the needy, and from the injuries and the abundant blood of the poor, hoard up for themselves great heaps of gold. Nor should they be subjected to insults by provincial judges and dragged about like slaves, beaten, and thrown into chains and stocks—O hateful thing!—those defenders and, after God, saviors of the Christians, who, I might almost say, die daily on behalf of the holy emperors; for the law itself commands that every commander should have authority over his own forces and should judge them. And to whom else does the provincial soldiery belong, save to the leader alone whom the divine prince has appointed in that province? For which reason, even among the most ancient Romans, authority was granted by law to the leader in his own province, so that he might judge [cases] relating to military causes [index: entries preserved]

and administer the affairs arising within the theme, having the judge as a collaborator and having those working under him as collaborators; and having to work also with the protonotary and the others who have been entrusted with public duties. The tourmarch also had, by law and by imperial decree, authority over the judgments within his own tourma, according to the forms then in use and their prerogatives. If, therefore, the army of the holy emperors takes up the ancient state of affairs, and the things that cause grief and lead into poverty are removed far from them, they will take on great zeal, and joy, and gladness; and they will be braver and bolder, and will appear invincible and unconquerable to the enemies. And with these things happening in this way, our holy emperors will not only avenge their own provinces, but will also subject to themselves many others that obey the enemy.

CHAPTER XX. Concerning adversaries, if they linger for a longer time in our region, that our army should cross over into their lands.

But if the enemies are patrolling our lands with a great and heavy force, wasting and destroying them, and contemplating the siege of fortresses, while guarding themselves against being ambushed by the Roman armies, and even devising schemes to ambush them instead; if an adequate Roman force is not available for a pitched battle against them, one able to defeat them, this is what you, O general, ought to accomplish, just as was done in times past, as the military handbook compiled by the renowned and most wise Emperor Leo sets forth, just as those who have read it clearly understand the matters to be discussed. For at that time, when the entire race of the Cilicians had swarmed with massive forces into the Eastern theme and was besieging the fortress of Mistheia with great violence, the reigning emperor commanded the leader of the army who was in charge at the time to march against the land of the Cilicians with the themes and the regiments; but to leave behind two of the generals, of the Anatolic and the Opsician [themes], to stand against the enemies for the defense, as much as possible, of both the fortress and the rest of the region. However, the leader of the armies (he was at that time Nicephorus, surnamed Phocas), having made his incursion through the road called the Maurianus against the land of Adana, carried off a very large amount of spoils. The people of Adana came out to meet him, and about two miles from their city they drew up in battle line; and as soon as they clashed, the Ishmaelites, turning their backs in headlong flight, made straight for the city. And as many of them as the leader of the Roman armies caught, who [were trying] to secure themselves within the gates...

could not cast them forth, held part of them in the number of his enemies, and led others into slavery. ^B Having then pitched his camp near the city, he destroyed all the fruit of the vineyards and trees, and ruined the beauty and amenity of the places around the city. On the following day, the army, pushing forward as far as the sea, having obtained as many captives as possible and a multitude of cattle, and without having interrupted their journey for any part of the day, withdrew to the Cydnus river, which is called Hierax by the inhabitants, beyond the bridge by which the road leads toward Adana. Having set out from there on the following day, he began to return to his own borders. The enemies who were besieging Misthea, when they heard of the Roman incursion into their own region, broke off the siege and returned with great speed to defend their own territory. But having undertaken this labor in vain, they were frustrated in both their hopes. For the leader of the Roman army returned to Roman territory with spoils, booty, and a great many slaves via the road which is called ^C Carydius. Beside these, the commanders of the Anatolics and Cappadocia in former times, when the Tarsians had made an incursion into Roman territory, had also entered their region by another path, sometimes by themselves, and sometimes by sending others of their own men there, and harassed them as opportunity offered. At the same time, the man to whom the care of Lycandus and the frontier provinces that are there was entrusted, whenever Alim, the son of Hamdan, either made an incursion into Roman territory or for some urgent reason moved his camp in his own region, entered the territory of Chalybon and Antioch, and brought great detriment to those parts, and brought into his own power the kinsmen of Alim, men great and venerable—commanders of camps—and their soldiers, brave men, and a very great number of castles. The same thing was also done in the Cilician tract, ^D for it is adjacent to Lycandus. Wherefore, O commander, if at any time you are unable to vex the enemies by your industry and snares, because they diligently fortify and guard themselves, and you do not have sufficiently strong forces to be able to fight them in open warfare, you ought to do what we have said: and either lead yourself into the borders of the adversaries, leaving behind the most outstanding of your prefects with a force that is sufficient for pursuing enemies and defending the provinces; or, if you yourself follow the enemies, send the best of your prefects, who has gained a name and praise for his virtue and experience in military matters, with a suitable force of horse and foot into the region of the adversaries, who, dwelling there, may vex it with fires and pillaging, and besiege their towns: that the enemies, having heard of this matter, may be compelled to recall their leader, even against his will, to defend his homeland. If, however, you diligently empty our fields, and drive the crowd of inhabitants and their cattle into the high and rugged mountains; and the enemies then wish to search and scour those ridges, and lead the people thence into slavery, and therefore, with all their...

forces, wish to approach such places and pitch their tents there, you also ought to be present in those parts, close by, to assist your own. And if you observe the place where the enemies are encamping, and it is a mountain or a high place suitable for attacking them by night, you shall plan to do so. And having examined well the position of the place, and having help from there, you shall prepare a night battle against them with infantry and cavalry, as has been said below concerning night warfare. And you will greatly wound and terrify them, and compel them to withdraw from there. But if they still stand firm in that place, guarding and protecting themselves well, and wishing to search the mountains where the refuges of the country folk are, you must have the entrances watched and pre-occupied by you by means of bowmen and light infantry. ^B And if these are well guarded—those in which the refuge of the farmers, along with their families and their children, has been made—if they wish to enter through those narrow and difficult paths, they will be defeated; and especially if infantry [forces attack them. But if they themselves, with infantry,] wish to advance and search the mountains, hasten to lead the inhabitants of the villages into more interior, more fortified, and safer places; while you, with all your people, occupy and safely guard the roads leading against them.

CHAPTER XXI. Concerning the siege of a fortress.

^C When you realize that the enemies are preparing to besiege a fortress, it is necessary for you, O general, in those places capable of being besieged (for there are many fortresses that do not fear a siege), to have the people taking refuge in them store up provisions for four months, or even for more, if possible, for each and every one, for as long as you estimate the siege will last. Also, take care of the water in the cisterns, and of all other things that can provide protection and help to those being besieged. ^D These things, because they are numerous, we shall omit to set forth in detail in the present writing. For concerning such things and other siege engines, and how those within ought to fight against those on the outside, those who wrote on military and strategic matters before us have explained accurately and learnedly. We, however, being commissioned to speak about skirmishing and the seizing of mountain passes, hasten to explain only those things which are conducive and appropriate to this institution. If the enemies, surrounding the fortress and having begun an assault, as those who are accustomed to do who

wish to hem in the besieged, are ^A clearly surrounding the fortress—it being understood that they neither allow any of our men to enter nor to exit, since most of our fortresses are established in strong and difficult places—if you are a general, you can easily attack them with infantry during a part of the night, as they move rashly without a rampart or guard; and you should take pains that the besieged, too, at the same hour may sally forth, and they themselves, if possible, join battle with the adversary. Thus, aided moreover by the nature of the terrain, you will defeat them. Although this, indeed, depends upon the providence of God. ^B But if, on account of the difficulty and ruggedness of the place, they do not dare to sit dispersed in a circle, but all their forces tend toward two places or only one, it is necessary first that all food for men and horses be burned and completely destroyed, and that nothing be left in the villages, either closer to the fortress or further away, which might be of use to beasts of burden or men. If wood is lacking, and there is no forest in that region, even the very roofs of the buildings must be burned. Thus the enemies, because of the difficulty of gathering wood and the scarcity of grain, must necessarily send soldiers further away to bring in necessary supplies. There you, ^C when you conduct the matter with skill and in the capacity of a commander, will be able to harass and rout them with ambushes placed in their way; so that, forced by the lack of provisions, they may break off the siege. When you see them persevering in the siege and the situation in the fortress being in a tight spot, you must consider engaging them by night with full martial force, having gathered your infantry together with your cavalry. If you have positioned these for the cavalry in a way that is suited to the nature of the place, initiate the battle at night, as I shall demonstrate below in the chapter concerning night combat. In this way you will break them and compel them to abandon the siege of the fortress. ^D If, however, some cause prevents the battle from taking place at night, and those besieged, although well-supplied with provisions, are in need of a garrison, you can in that way introduce a reinforcement of either defenders or, if they are pressed by the lack of food, of rations. With the army gathered into one place and divided into two parts, let the soldiers of one part take, each man, four modii of grain upon the horses they ride. Assign to these other light cavalry, carrying nothing but their arms, who may serve merely as a protection for the others. You, however, with the rest of the armed army, from a different direction at the same hour that the grain-carriers are about to approach closer to the fortress, appear suddenly around midnight with noise and the sound of trumpets, as if you were about to join battle immediately. Thus, while the enemies prepare themselves for combat against you and hasten to meet you, those who are carrying the grain, having gained the opportunity, will bring it into the fortress and will return unharmed. By such a stratagem, both a reinforcement of defenders and provisions, if—

both are in need, will the besieged obtain, and safety with them.

CHAPTER XXII. On the separation of the half or also the third part of the hostile forces.

If, however, the enemy do not turn themselves to the siege of a fortress but with a large and powerful army roam our regions, the leader of the Roman forces must diligently enjoin and instruct the farmers, that is, the villagers and all their property, that they withdraw into fortresses and fortified places, and must use prudence and vigilance to harass those who have emerged for the sake of pillaging: so that they may fear to depart further from the army and to collect provisions; and thus they will be hard pressed, suffering from a scarcity of grain. But, as we have said, if they possess a large body of men, they will perhaps adopt another method of war. ^A Having made a division, they will send half or even the third part of the army out of the camp at a distance of one day's journey, or even further, to the villages where they hope to find more abundant provisions. It is necessary for these to be absent from the camp for two or three days. When this has been known and thoroughly perceived, you, commander, must with prudent deliberation set an ambush for them and, during the night, move your army closer and hide it in a suitable place if you can find one. ^B Since the foragers do not disperse into two or three villages but into many, if it is probable that a station—which they call a *fulcum*—is present to protect them, you ought to divide your force into two parts; taking care that you are not noticed or detected by the enemy as they scout the hiding-places, and that you are not instead surrounded by them yourselves; but remain in your hiding-place until the eleventh hour of the day, when the sun is already verging toward setting. Then, when the station, as is its custom, begins to withdraw to the villages ^C in which their companions are encamped, send forward to those more remote villages the soldiers whom you have previously selected; move yourself afterwards, following from nearby. And as the nature of the place allows, secretly and without noise, traveling quickly, hide yourself until you come very close to the villages. But if there is no possibility of hiding your force near a stream, and it cannot but fall into view, then with horses spurred sharply, let the advance be made by the pre-positioned scouts against the enemy who are within the villages. ^D If they attack these unexpectedly, they will slaughter many, and will also drag off some alive into slavery. But if the station appointed to protect them is still acting outside the villages, let the troop previously sent forward first make an attack upon it around the setting of the sun, in the manner I have demonstrated. Then, you too, following behind your scouts, as you shall be drawn up for the joining of battle, invade them, and by the grace of Christ you will defeat them. And if the enemy leaders, who are in command there,

^A are able to possess great strength, and to call them back even as they are being seized, nothing will happen to you from the enemies, and the enemies will be terrified of you; and they will not dare to depart safely from their ramparts. Hence, there is a necessity that they, deprived of provisions, should return to their own land.

Chapter XXIII. Concerning the departure of the enemy, and the occupation of the mountain passes.

If the enemies retreat and hasten to their own territories, it is necessary to send infantry ahead to occupy the passes and the roads by which they are to travel. For the route by which they intend to pass, from the provinces of the Seleucians and the Anatolikoi, as defined by the Taurus mountains, Cilicia, Cappadocia, and Lycandus; in addition to these, also the adjacent Germaniceia and Adatha, and the regions bordering on Melitene and Caludia; and likewise the routes along the Euphrates River that separate the enemy lands from the Roman Empire ^B in all these provinces, whichever path they may choose to make their journey back to their own territories, you will be able, without any doubt, to wage war against them and, with God’s help and His grace, win a victory. But if you are four days’ march away from the camp, and having identified the path by which the enemy has departed, it is fitting for you, with the speed of the entire army, to outstrip them and send the infantry ahead to the passes, and yourself hasten on; but to leave behind for the other commanders the most excellent of your forces, so that they may pursue them and prevent them from committing looting or excursions at your rear. You ought to have the remaining cavalry forces with you, under your own command, and conduct them in such a way that, when the adversaries are about two camps away from the mountain passes, you yourself may cross over with all your forces and take up a position at that location, so that battle may be joined against them there. But you, after you have arrived at the mountain passes, having gathered the infantry into one place, must take care that you ^C also organize another line of infantry, as numerous as you can possibly muster. You shall incite these with strong words toward valor and daring, and toward the alacrity of those who are the best soldiers, inciting them with honey-sweet exhortation. You shall say: “Fellow Roman soldiers, let us stand ^D firmly and unyieldingly; let us stand like men and with great spirit. Let us show the enemies our arm and our force; let us show that they have made their attack against stronger men, and even as the enemy approaches the passes of the defiles, you should strive to pass through with your entire army and seize the place where the battle against them is to be fought. But as you are taking your position in the mountain pass, and the infantry ranks are being combined, it is necessary to hasten and to gather as much other infantry as you are able; and to exhort them with boldness, anointing them for courage and daring, and also to stir up their zeal, as the best general does, with honey-dropping exhortations, saying, “Men, Romans, ...

stand unmoved and steadfast; stand like men and ^A bravely. Let us show our enemies our arm and our strength; let us show them that they have to do with those who are superior in their onslaught.” For their nature is not stone, nor is it bronze, that they cannot receive wounds; nor is their body made of iron, that it cannot be broken by labors or lose its vigor. ^A Furthermore, point out to them the difficulty of the terrain where they are about to engage in battle, and how much aid it provides them. And after having well whetted and stirred them up, and having made them more eager and daring, place them in the locations where they ought to fight the enemy. And first, indeed, it is necessary to occupy the high ridges of the mountains and to block and secure all the paths. Where you also happen to have cavalry fighting along with the infantry, place them in convenient locations as well. In all your battle-arrays, you must appoint leaders over the useful tasks, and observe and do all the other things we explained at the beginning of the discourse ^B concerning how one ought to fight the enemy in difficult terrain. When the enemy approaches and realizes the security that has been established by you along the path, and that it is impossible to pass through, even if they dare attempt it, their plan will not succeed for them. But harassed and crushed by your troops, they will unwillingly turn their backs and will hasten to arrive at their own borders by some other way. It is impossible to describe in words the joy and gladness with which your army will be filled when it sees them turning back so ignobly and in such disorder. When the enemy turns back, as has been said, then pursue them from behind, sending forward ^C cavalry with light-armed troops; and you yourself, in hastening to overtake them, must advance more quickly. The adversaries who are fleeing, in order that they may pass through the defiles hastily, having avoided fighting in them, and may arrive at their own borders, as soon as they have drawn near the mountain passes, fearing lest our infantry should again forestall them and occupy their path—if they attempt to make the journey by night, as soon as you overtake them, with their horses worn out from the long trek and the men themselves exhausted, you will have found, O general, that which you have always sought. And as soon as you have overtaken them by night, you must immediately bring up the guard ^D called the *saca*, with infantry followed by cavalry. Send forward other light-armed troops with cavalry along both sides of the path to get ahead of the enemy and order them to make an attack from the flank. If you act thus, they will not be able to resist, but will take to flight. And if they do this by night, pursue them and you will deliver them to total destruction.

CHAPTER XXIV. On the nocturnal struggle.

If they come to another plan, which they deem profitable, and when, once they have understood your arrival,

and have set up their tents at night, then you shall engage them in a nocturnal battle. You ought to join battle with them in this manner: you shall advance your standards from the rear with the infantry line. It is necessary to divide the remaining infantry ^A forces into six parts, and to station three obliquely on the right flank of the enemy, and three on the left, if the nature of the terrain has compelled them to extend their camp in length. These lines should be distant from one another by about a bowshot, or a little less, leaving open only that one unguarded path by which the adversaries might attain homeland and safety; so that, under the strain of a very fierce attack, they may find an open path and, led by false hope that they might escape the battle unscathed and reach home, they might mount their horses and commit themselves to that flight, each man having regard only for his own safety.

If they have not extended their camp in length, but the site of the place has made it circular, you ought to order the infantry lines to be posted all around, and to prepare themselves for battle: yet to leave free and open, as we have instructed, that one path which leads to the adversaries' territories. After you have drawn up the infantry in this manner, order them to encamp not far from the enemy and to kindle a great number of fires. Furthermore, you will appoint a good and brave man as commander of each infantry line: likewise, you will assign light cavalry to each line, who may stand in the rear ^B if the terrain permits, with suitable leaders. You will order all the soldiers, even those of the infantry lines, to obey these men.

With these things so arranged, it is necessary to select strong and very swift light-armed troops and to send them ahead, so that they may advance in silence and approach as near to the enemy as possible, instructed thus: that those who are near the center of the army should first make the attack, then those in front.

But if the terrain has a slope on both sides, the enemy, being assailed from higher ground on both sides by manual stones, slings, and arrows, will be scattered without any trouble. If the site of the place is not thus situated, but the slope hangs over from only one side, stones and arrows will similarly be cast upon them more easily from there. If, however, the affair is conducted on a plain, the battle must be joined with greater caution. If the enemies wish to mount their horses and make an attack upon our men, they will bring no harm to the light-armed troops who are aided by the terrain, but will instead bring a great evil upon themselves. All the infantry forces ought to run down from both sides at the same time, and with trumpets sounding, raise a shout and a war cry. Next, the commander also must fiercely join battle from the rear. And if the adversaries persist and ^C do not commit themselves to flight, the unencumbered light-armed troops and those sent out before the standards must be urged on by the exhortations of the leaders, so that they may penetrate as far as the tents of the enemy. This will be easy to do on account of the unevenness of the place. Thus, when they have begun to lay hands on the horses and mules, then... ^D

and the goods ^A of the enemy, and to enslave human beings, and once the start of this has been made, all will rush to this looting and will without restraint pass into the tents, cutting them down with the sword. And then all will rush to flight; those who are able will leap upon horses, others on foot, so that they might be able to hide in mountains and ravines and win their safety. And if, with the help of God, the end of the war should be such through the intercessions ^B of his all-immaculate Mother and Theotokos, the holy emperors will receive glory, and the entire Roman army will receive firmament; for the enemy will no longer be able to stand against them. But if, at dawn, finding an open place, they have settled there by pitching their tents, and it is not so convenient to conduct a night battle in such a place, the commander must, with all his infantry and cavalry forces, again get in front of the enemy and occupy the mountaintops, and once more block the way by which they are to pass. And since, as we have taught, all the paths leading to the barbarian lands in all the provinces ^C which I have enumerated and observed with my own eyes are difficult, passing through the mountains which mark the boundary of both regions, hasten to preoccupy their passage, and confidently draw up your forces to engage them openly. And by the grace of Christ our God, you will overcome them, and deliver those routed to utter destruction.

CAP. XXV. Of another way of occupying the path, which possesses difficulty in the descent.

If, however, the path by which they are retreating is found to have an ascent ^D toward the enemy, and is level, without obstacles, so that you cannot attack them from the front—but when it slopes down into a valley, it becomes narrow and difficult, confusing their ranks and forcing them to pass through only a few at a time, compelling the others likewise to follow and pass through—in such straits it is necessary for infantry ranks to be stationed on both sides of the enemy, two on the right and two on the left, with an interval left between them. Also, position in ambush behind them a good number of infantry with cavalry and a brave and very experienced commander (provided that they have left behind what is called a *saka* on the higher ground to stand and guard the way); but not too close, so that they may not be detected. And when these, placed in ambush above and intent on joining battle, see that our ranks stationed below have made an assault upon the column of the passing enemy, let those soldiers and horsemen who are stationed in the ambush likewise spring forth and join battle with them against the enemy. But if those who have sat down in ambush do not dare to descend, because the *saka* is in an level place...

stands, let them keep to their hiding places: but when he attempts to retreat and withdraw to his own side (for it is hardly to be believed that he will stand his ground for long), as soon as he begins to descend the slope, let the ambushers rush out: and with the way blocked and the higher positions seized, let them make an assault upon them. Then, attacked by the soldiers' missiles and pressed by the unfavorable nature of the ground, they will not be able to resist or fight back: but, afflicted in the narrow places by our battle lines which stood below, they will hasten to reach their men, with the hope of crossing over and arriving home. But that will by no means succeed for them, provided the battle against them is conducted in the manner we have described; rather, they will be gloriously defeated, by the aid of our true God: to whom be glory and power, with the Father and the Holy Spirit, now, and always, and for ever and ever. Amen. ^B

The end, with God, of the book on military affairs.

EXCERPTS FROM THE ARAB HISTORIES CONCERNING THE SYRIAC EXPEDITIONS OF NICEPHORUS PHOCAS AND JOHN TZIMISCES. (Ed. Bonn. 1828.)

Christianus Lassenius, Doctor of Philosophy, sends greetings to the readers.

The illustrious Mr. Niebuhr asked me to provide, for the new edition of Leo the Deacon which is soon to appear, excerpts from Arabic books—to which I have had the opportunity of referring in this city—that would serve to illustrate the deeds performed in the East by the emperors Nicephorus Phocas and John Tzimices. I very gladly seized this opportunity to perceive the history of those times and to compare something from the Oriental sources, both on account of that great man's authority over me and his distinguished kindness. I therefore diligently read through the Oriental historians that were at hand, and arranged those things which I excerpted in this order.

In the first place, I have presented excerpts from the Syriac Chronicle of Abulpharagius, or Barhebraeus, which V. V. D. D. P. I. Bruns, professor at Helmstadt, and G. G. Kirsch, rector at Hof, brought to the public domain forty years ago. The author of the Chronicle was a physician from Melitene, a Christian by religion; he explained universal history from the creation of the world until the end of the thirteenth century, succinctly and briefly in a book which is by no means to be despised, while more copious and accurate commentaries on Oriental history, written for the most part in the Arabic language, lie buried in archives and hidden from the eyes of the curious. In composing the book of which I speak here, Abulpharagius used the Syriac language (in his other works he speaks almost exclusively in Arabic), of which, being entirely ignorant, I have no judgment regarding the translation, although it appears that the translators were so tenacious of the words that they are scarcely Latin in their phrasing; yet it is certainly difficult to adapt Latin to the genius of the Oriental languages, and I often fear on my own account what I will soon chastise in others, that others may chastise me in turn.

Abulpharagius is followed by excerpts from the Annals of Abulfeda, rendered into Latin by Reiske and, after the death of that most learned man who was highly skilled in the Arabic language, edited in Arabic and Latin by J. G. C. Adler, professor at Copenhagen. The author is known, and I will not occupy the reader's time with a separate discussion about him. From Reiske’s notes, I have retained only those which might serve to clarify the subjects, omitting the rest which did not pertain to this matter.

From Elmacinus’s Saracen history, I totally omitted what I had excerpted, since, upon making a comparison, I saw that almost nothing was recorded by him that had not already been handed down more copiously and better by Abulpharagius and Abulfeda.

Finally, in the last place, I have translated into Latin a part of the little book edited eight years ago by the distinguished G. W. Freitag, professor of Oriental languages in this Academy, a man whom I myself venerate as a teacher of Arabic, under this title: *Regierung des Saahd-Addaulu zu Aleppo. Aus einer Arabischen Hand*