of greater paradoxes on land, should flee again to the sea after the example of Jonah. It seems to me that the discourse, having fallen into ten thousand wonders, has forgotten its own symmetry, and suffered the same fate as those sailing on the high seas, who, lacking any fixed landmark by which to judge their movement, often do not know how far they have traveled. This also seems to have happened to us; for as the discourse ran through creation, we did not perceive the multitude of things mentioned. But if this venerable audience willingly listens, and if the narration of the Lord's miracles is pleasant to the ears of servants, let us pause our discourse here and await the day to complete what is lacking. Let us all, therefore, rise and give thanks for what has been recounted, and let us pray that what remains may be fulfilled. May there be among you, even while taking meals at your table, these items for conversation—those which I have explained in the morning and evening addresses: and may you, even when occupied by sleep with thoughts of these things, enjoy B by night the gladness you had by day, so that you may be able to say: "I sleep, and my heart waketh," as one who meditates day and night upon the law of the Lord, to whom be glory and dominion unto the ages of ages. Amen.
HOMILY VIII. Concerning birds and aquatic creatures
1. "And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living soul according to its kind, quadrupeds and creeping things and beasts according to their kind. And it was so." The command came, proceeding in order, and the earth also received its proper adornment. There [it was said], "Let the waters bring forth creeping C things of living souls": here, "Let the earth bring forth living soul." Is the earth then endowed with a soul? Do the foolish Manichaeans now have room [to argue], who attribute a soul to the earth? It is not because He said, "Bring forth," that it produced what was already placed within it; rather, He who gave the command also granted it the power and faculty to bring forth. For neither when the earth heard, "Let the earth bring forth the herb of grass and fruit-bearing trees," did it bring forth the grass which it had stored up within itself; nor did it bring to the surface the palm, or the oak, or the cypress, which were hidden somewhere deep in the recesses of its womb. But the divine Word is the nature of the things that come to be. "Let the earth bring forth"—not that it should give what it has, but D that it should acquire what it does not have, since God grants it the power of action and production. So also now, "Let the earth bring forth living soul"—not that which was in it, but that which was given to it by God through the command.
A Furthermore, the argument will turn against them. For if the earth brought forth the soul, it would have left itself destitute of soul. But the detestable nature of their opinion is evident from the very thing itself. Why, however, were the waters commanded to bring forth creeping things with living souls, while the earth was commanded to bring forth a living soul? We consider, therefore, that the nature of swimming creatures seems to be partaker of a somewhat more imperfect life, because they dwell in the thickness of the water. For among them, hearing is heavy, and they see dimly, since they look through the water; and there is in them neither memory, nor imagination, nor knowledge of what is customary. For this reason, the discourse, as it were, signifies that in aquatic animals, a carnal life presides over the movements of the soul; but in land animals, because they are endowed with a more perfect life, the soul is entrusted with the entire governance. For their senses are more B acute, their perceptions of present things are keen, and in most quadrupeds, their memories of past things are accurate. For this reason, it seems, bodies endowed with soul were created in the case of water-creatures (for creeping things with living souls were brought forth from the waters), whereas in the case of land animals, a soul was commanded to come into being to govern their bodies, as these creatures, dwelling upon the earth, partake of something more in the way of vital power.
For although land animals are irrational, yet each one, by the voice given to it by nature, signifies many of its soul's affections. For by sound they declare joy and grief, the recognition of what is customary, the need for food, the separation from those with whom they grazed, and countless other impressions. But aquatic creatures are not only mute, but also untamed, and unteachable, and intractable to all companionship with men. The ox knows its owner, and the ass its master's manger; but C a fish could not recognize the one who feeds it. The ass knows the familiar voice; it knows the path it has often walked; and sometimes it even becomes a guide to a man who has gone astray. And the keenness of hearing with which this animal is endowed is said to be possessed by no other land animal. But what could any of the marine creatures imitate of the camel's memory of injuries, its heavy-spiritedness, and its persistence in wrath? A camel struck long ago, having stored its rancor for a long time, returns the evil when it finds an opportunity. Hear, you who are heavy-spirited, who cultivate the memory of injuries as if it were a virtue; to whom are you like when you keep malice against your neighbor, like a spark hidden in ashes, until, having D seized upon material, you kindle your wrath like a flame?
2. *Let the earth bring forth a living soul.* Why does it bring forth a living soul? So that you may learn the difference between the soul of a beast and the soul of man. A little later you will learn how the soul of man was constituted; but now, hear concerning the soul of irrational creatures. ¶
B Since, according to the Scripture, the soul of every animal is its very blood, and blood, when it has coagulated, is naturally wont to turn into flesh, and flesh, when corrupted, is resolved into earth; it is with good reason and justly that the soul of brute animals is terrestrial. Therefore, let the earth bring forth a living soul. Observe the connection of soul to blood, of blood to flesh, and of flesh to the earth; and, by reversing the order, go back again through the same steps: from the earth to the flesh, from the flesh to the blood, and from the blood to the soul. You will find that the soul of beasts is earth. Do not think it to be older than the constitution of their bodies, nor that it survives after the dissolution of the flesh. Flee the ravings of arrogant philosophers, who are not ashamed to posit that their own souls and those of dogs are of the same species, they who teach that they themselves were once women, shrubs, and sea fish. For my part, I would not say whether they were ever fish, but I would most firmly assert that, while they were writing such things, they were more irrational than fish.
Let the earth bring forth a living soul. Why, while our discourse was flowing along readily, I kept silence for no small time, perhaps many wonder; but the more diligent among the audience are not ignorant of the cause of the pause. For how could they be? Those very people, by mutual glances and nods, turned me back to themselves and brought to mind the things that had been omitted. For an entire species of creation, and not a small one, escaped us, and our discourse had all but passed it by, leaving it entirely unexamined. C For [let the waters bring forth] reptiles of living souls after their kind, and birds flying above the earth according to the firmament of heaven. We discoursed about the swimming creatures as much as the evening time allowed; today we have moved on to the examination of land animals. The winged creature in our midst escaped us. It is necessary, therefore, like forgetful travelers who, when they have left behind something of importance, even if they have traveled far on their journey, return again to the same spot, paying the penalty for their negligence by undergoing the labor and annoyance of the journey: so, as it seems, must we also repeat the same path. For the thing left behind is not to be scorned, but it seems to be the third portion of the created animal kingdom. For there are three kinds of animals: the terrestrial, the volatile, and the aquatic. D Let the waters bring forth, he says, reptiles of living souls after their kind, and birds flying above the earth under the firmament of heaven after their kind. Why also do [birds originate] from the waters...
Because there is a kind of kinship between those that fly and those that swim. For just as fish cut the water, proceeding forward by the movement of their fins, and by the turning of their tail steering for themselves both their circular movements and their straight courses, so too one can see in [the case of] winged creatures as they swim through the air with their wings in a similar manner. A Since, therefore, the act of swimming is a unique characteristic in both, a single kinship was provided for them through their origin from the waters. Nevertheless, no winged creature is footless, because their food comes to all of them from the earth, and all necessarily require the ministry of feet. For to the birds of prey, the sharpness of their claws is conceded for the catching of prey, while for the rest, the use of their feet is necessarily granted for the procuring of food and for the conduct of the remainder of their life. Few of the birds are “bad-footed,” being unfit for either walking or hunting with their feet; such are the swallows B and the so-called swifts (drepanes), for whom food is devised from the things carried in the air. For the swallow, the proximity of its flight serves in place of the ministry of the feet.
3. There are, however, countless genera of birds, which if anyone were to examine in the same manner as we touched upon in part the investigation of the fish, he will find a single name for [the category of] winged creatures, but countless differences among them in sizes, in shapes, and in colors; and in their lives, their actions, and their habits, he will discover an indescribable variation among them. Now, indeed, some have attempted to use coined names, as if by certain brandings of an unusual and foreign appellation, C the characteristic of each genus might be recognized. And some they named “schizoptera” (split-winged), as the eagles; others “dermoptera” (skin-winged), as the bats; and others still [are called] coleoptera, those which are born in certain sheaths and coverings which, once ruptured, fly off.
3. Furthermore, there are innumerable differences of genera among birds: if anyone runs through these in that same manner in which we touched upon the class of fishes, he will find one name for [all] birds, but he will find differences of size, of figure, and of color within them. And as regards their life, their actions, and their habits, he will discover an unspeakable variation among them. Now, indeed, some have attempted to use invented names, so that, as if by certain branding-marks of an unusual and strange appellation, the property of each genus might be known. D And some birds they have named schizopteras, as eagles; others dermopteras, as bats; others again [coleopteras...].
as beetles; and whatever others are generated within some sheaths and coverings, which, once the casing is ruptured, are set free for flight. But for us, sufficient notice for the property of the genera is common usage, and the distinctions regarding clean and unclean animals in Scripture. There is, therefore, one genus of carnivorous birds, and another constitution suited to their manner of life: the sharpness of their claws, and a curved beak, and swift wings, so that the prey may be easily caught, and, being torn to pieces, become food for the predator. Other is the constitution of those that collect seeds; other of those that are nourished by anything that they happen upon. And in these there are very many differences. For some of them are gregarious, except for the birds of prey; among these there is no society, except for the union of pairing. But countless others have chosen a communal life, as pigeons, and cranes, and starlings, and jackdaws. Again, among these, some are leaderless and, as it were, autonomous; but others submit to being ordered under a leader, as cranes. There is, moreover, another difference among them, according to which some never change their place and are indigenous; others are accustomed to depart for very long distances, and, as winter approaches, for the most part remove themselves to another place. And many birds, when they are reared, become tame and domesticated, except for the weak and infirm ones, which, on account of excessive timidity and cowardice, do not endure the constant annoyance of the hand. But some birds also enjoy human society, and dwell in the same habitations B as we ourselves do: others inhabit the mountains and delight in solitude. C That property of each one which pertains to voice also creates a very great distinction. For some birds are loquacious and garrulous; others are silent. These indeed are tuneful and very clamorous; those are entirely devoid of modulation and song. And some are imitative, receiving this ability either from nature or from training; others emit the same and immutable voice. The cock is proud; the peacock is a lover of adornment and elegance; pigeons are lustful, just as are domestic hens, which indulge in lust at every season. The partridge is deceitful and jealous, maliciously contributing its help to hunters for the capture of the prey.
4. There are countless, as we have said, even of the actions and lives, differences. D There are also some among these irrational animals that are political, if indeed it is the property of a polity to have the actions of each individual converge toward one common end, as one might see in the case of bees. For of these, the dwelling is common, and the flight is common, and the work of all is one; and most importantly, they engage in their tasks under a ruler and leader, and they do not...
A deign to go forth to the meadows before they see the king leading the flight. And for them, the king is not chosen by hand (for often the lack of judgment of the people 54 has set the worst man in charge), nor does he hold his power by lot (for the chance occurrences of lots are irrational, often bringing to power the most base of all), nor is he established on the throne by paternal succession (for these men, too, usually become uneducated and ignorant of every virtue, on account of their luxury and the flattery they receive), but by nature he possesses the primacy over all, and he excels in size, in form, and in the gentleness of his character. Although the king has a sting, he does not use it for vengeance. These are certain unwritten laws of nature for me, that those who have been raised to the greatest power should be slow to punish. But even among the bees, if any do not follow the example of the king, they quickly repent of their folly, because they perish by the stroke of their own sting 55. Let Christians hear this, for whom the command is to return no one evil for evil, but to overcome evil with good. Imitate the peculiar character of the bee, which, harming no one and destroying no one’s fruit, constructs and fastens its honeycombs. For it gathers the wax openly from the flowers 56, but the honey—the moisture scattered like dew upon the flowers—it draws up with its mouth and deposits into the cavities of the combs. Hence, it is liquid at first; then, B thickened by time, it returns to its proper consistency and sweetness. This bee has received noble and fitting praise from the Proverbs 57, being called both wise and industrious; in this way, it gathers food with such labor (the fruits of which, he says, kings and commoners use for their health), and in this way, it wisely and artfully fashions the storehouses of its honey (for, having stretched the wax into a thin membrane, it builds the cavities thick and continuous with one another), so that the density of the C binding of these minute cells to one another becomes a stay and support for the whole. For each cell 58 is attached to another, separated from it by a thin partition, and yet at the same time connected to it by that same partition. Then, these tubes are built one upon another, two or three stories high. For it takes care 59 not to make one continuous cavity, lest the liquid leak out on the outside due to its weight. Learn how the inventions of geometry D are secondary to the work of the wisest bee. For all the tubes of the honeycombs are hexagonal and equilateral, not placed in a straight line
so that the bottoms may not get weary from being fitted into the gaps; but the angles of the hexagons below are the base and support for those above, so that they may safely carry the weights above them, and so that in each individual cavity the liquid may be contained.
5. How could I recount for you with precision all the properties pertaining to the life of birds? How cranes take turns at keeping watch during the night B, and while some sleep, others, walking in a circle, provide them all with safety during their sleep; then, when the time of the watch is filled, the one that cried out turns to sleep, and the other, receiving the succession, returns in its turn the safety which it received. You will observe this order also in their very flight. For one is sometimes the leader of the journey; but when it has stood at the head of the flight for some time, it retires to the rear and hands over the leadership of the way to the one following. And the manner of action of the storks is not far from rational intelligence; for they all arrive at these regions at one and the same time; and in this way, under a single signal, they all depart. Our own crows accompany them, C and, in my opinion, escort them, providing, as it were, some alliance against hostile birds. The first proof of this matter is that during that time no crow at all appears; then, because they return with wounds, they bring clear signs of the protection and auxiliary support they provided. Who has prescribed for them the laws of hospitality? Who has threatened them with a charge of desertion from the military, so that not one of them withdraws from the company? Let them hear, those who are harsh and ungracious toward guests, and who shut their doors, and do not receive strangers under their roof D even in winter or at night. Furthermore, the care which storks show toward those worn out by old age would be enough to excite our children to the love of their parents, if they were willing to pay attention. For there is no man so entirely lacking in mind that he does not judge it a thing worthy of shame for him to be inferior in virtue to the most unreasoning birds. They circle around the father, who is laboring under the shedding of feathers from old age, and warm him with their own feathers, and providing food in abundance, they offer him aid that is possible even in flight, gently lifting him from both sides with their wings. And this is so celebrated among all, that now some call the repayment of benefits "antipelargosis" (stork-repayment). Let no one lament over poverty; nor let him despair of his life who has no wealth left at home, if he observes the industry of the swallow. For that bird, building its nest, carries the twigs in its mouth; but since it cannot take up the mud with its feet, moistening the tips of its wings with water, and then rolling itself in the finest dust, it thus makes use of mud
and by binding the twigs together little by little with the mud as if with some kind of glue, it brings up its young within it. If one puts out the eyes of these A young, nature has bestowed upon it a certain medical art by which it restores the sight of its offspring to health. Let these things admonish you not to turn to wrongdoing because of poverty, nor to lie idle and inactive in the most grievous sufferings, having thrown away all hope; but to flee to God, who, if He bestows such great things upon a swallow, how much greater things will He grant to those who call upon Him with their whole heart?
The halcyon is a sea bird. It is its nature to nest along B the shores, laying its eggs in the sand; and it nests somewhere about the middle of winter, at the time when the sea is dashed against the land by many violent winds. Nevertheless, all the winds are lulled to sleep, and the sea waves are quiet, when the halcyon is incubating for seven days. For in just so many days it hatches its young. But since they also need food, God, most bountiful, has granted this tiny animal another seven days for the growth of its young. Wherefore all sailors know this, and call those days "halcyonean." These things have been ordained and appointed by Divine providence over brute animals, so that you, encouraged by them, might ask of God those things that pertain to your salvation. For what wonder could not happen for your sake—you who have been made in the image of God—when, for the sake of such a small little bird, the vast and terrible sea is commanded to be calm and is checked and reined in in the midst of winter?
6. They say that the turtledove, C once separated from its mate, no longer admits to fellowship with another, but remains unmarried, refusing a union with another in memory of the one to whom it was once joined. Let women hear how, even among brute animals, the dignity and honesty of widowhood is preferred to the indecency of frequent marriages. The eagle is most unjust in the rearing of its offspring. For when it has hatched two chicks, it thrusts one of them to the earth, driving it away with the beats of its wings; and it takes only the other as its own, disowning the one it begot on account of the difficulty of procuring food. But, as they say, the ossifrage does not allow this one to perish; rather, it takes it up and rears it together with its own chicks. Such are those parents who, under the pretext of poverty, D expose their infants: or who indeed in the distribution of their estate are most unequal...
A toward their offspring. For it is just, just as they have equally shared the gift of being with each one, so also to provide them with the means of living equally and honorably. Do not imitate the cruelty of the hook-clawed birds, which, when they see their own young ones ready to dare flight, cast them from the nest, striking them with their wings and pushing them, and take no further care for them. The love of the crow for its young is commendable; for it accompanies them even when they are already flying, feeding and nurturing them for the longest time. Many species of birds have no need of the mating of males for conception; but in other species eggs produced without mating are infertile. They say, however, that vultures for the most part produce young without mating, although they are extremely long-lived: for their life generally extends even up to a hundred years. I would wish you to have this B noted and observed from the history of birds, so that if you ever see some people mocking our mystery, as though it were impossible and contrary to nature for a virgin to give birth while her virginity remained undefiled, it may come to your mind that God, whom it pleased to save those who believe by the folly of the preaching, had, in advance, laid down C myriads of evidence derived from nature itself to win faith for even such stupendous things.
7. *Let the waters bring forth crawling creatures of living beings, and birds flying above the earth, according to the firmament of heaven.* They were commanded to fly above the earth, because the earth provides food for all: but according to the firmament of heaven, because, as we have said before, the air is called heaven in this place, taking its name, so to speak, from the word meaning "to be seen." Indeed, it is even called a firmament, because that air which hangs over our heads, when compared to the ethereal body, is of a somewhat denser composition, and is the more compressed by the exhalations rising from the lowest places. You have, therefore, the heaven adorned, the earth decorated, the sea abounding in its own offspring, the air filled with the birds flying through it. All these things, which have been brought into being from nothing by the commandment of D God—and the rest which our discourse has now omitted, avoiding a longer lingering upon these things, lest it seem to exceed the limit—do you, as a student, think upon them with yourself, and learning the wisdom of God in all things, never cease from your wonder, nor from praising the Creator by means of all creation.
A You have in the darkness the nocturnal species of birds; in the light, those that go by day. For bats, and owls, and night-ravens are of the nocturnal sort. So that at any time when sleep is not present to you, it suffices to occupy yourself with these, and to examine the properties that belong to them, for the glorification of the Creator. How the nightingale is wakeful, when she is brooding, not ceasing from her melody through the whole night. How the bat is the same both as a quadruped and as a winged creature. How it alone among birds uses teeth, and brings forth its young 81 like the quadrupeds, yet moves about in the air, not raised by feathers, but by a certain leathery membrane. How, furthermore, it possesses this 82 communal affection in its nature, and just as a hanging chain, the bats hold onto one another, and each is suspended from the next: a thing which is not easy for us humans to accomplish. For that which is detached and private is preferred by most people to that which is social and united. How like the eyes of the owl are those who have spent their time on vain wisdom. B For as the vision of that bird is strong by night, but is dimmed when the sun shines, so the mind of these people is indeed most sharp for the contemplation of vanity, but is darkened for the understanding of the true light. In the day, it is also very easy for you to gather from every side the miracle of the Creator. How the domestic bird rouses you to work, with a sharp voice crying out and announcing from far away the sun still approaching, keeping watch with travelers, and leading forth the farmers to the harvest. How wakeful is the race of geese, and most sharp in the perception of things that are hidden, which once also saved the royal city, by disclosing some enemies who were already about to seize the citadel of Rome beneath the earth through hidden tunnels 85. In what genus of birds does nature not show some singular miracle? Who 86 announces to the vultures the death of men, when they make war upon one another? For you might see myriads of flocks of vultures following the camps, judging the outcome from the preparation of the weapons. This, however, is not far 87 from human reasoning. How shall I recount to you the terrible expeditions of the locust, which, raised by one signal, and having encamped over the breadth of the land, does not touch the crops before the divine command is given to it? How does the *seleucis* follow as a remedy for the plague, having an endless power of eating, because the philanthropic God, for the benefit of D humanity, has fashioned its nature as insatiable 88?
A? What is the method of the cicada’s music? And how is it that they are more sonorous at midday, since the sound is produced by the drawing in of air, which happens when they expand their thorax? But indeed I feel myself even less capable in speech of explaining the miracles of the winged creatures than if I were to attempt to match their speed with my feet. When you see those winged creatures that are called insects, such as bees and wasps (for they have been named so because they show certain incisions on all sides), think upon the fact that they have no respiration, nor even lungs, but are nourished entirely through and through by the air. For this reason, if they are dampened with oil, they perish, because their pores become obstructed; but if vinegar is immediately applied, they revive again, as the passages are opened. God, our Creator, has fashioned nothing superfluous to our needs, nor has He left anything essential lacking. Again, if you examine the creatures that love the water, you will find a different structure in them: feet that are not cloven, like those of a crow, nor hooked like those of carnivorous birds, but broad and webbed, so that they may easily swim upon the waves, pushing the water with the membranes of their feet as if they were oars. If you observe how the swan, plunging its neck into the deep water, brings up its food from the bottom, then you will discover the wisdom of the Creator, who for this very reason granted it a neck longer than its feet, so that, letting it down like a fishing line, it might search out and extract the food hidden in the depths.
8. If the words of Scripture are read simply, they are but small syllables C: "Let the waters bring forth winged creatures flying over the earth according to the firmament of heaven"; but when the meaning of the words is investigated, then the great miracle of the wisdom of the Creator appears. How many differences of winged creatures did He provide for? How did He separate them one from another according to their kind? How did He mark each one with distinct characteristics? The day fails me as I describe to you the miracles of the air. The dry land calls us to bring forth the wild beasts, the reptiles, and the cattle into our midst; for it is ready to present something that is not unequal to the plants, the swimming kind, and all the winged creatures. "Let the earth bring forth the living soul of cattle and wild beasts and reptiles according to their kind." What do you say, you who do not have faith in Paul D concerning the change that will take place at the resurrection, when you see many of the airy creatures changing their forms? Such things are reported even of the Indian horned worm, which, having first been changed into a caterpillar, then in the progress of time becomes a silkworm, and does not remain even in this form, but takes on loose and broad plates as wings. When, therefore, you women sit and unwind the work of these creatures—I mean the threads which the Seres send to you for soft garments
A, keeping in mind the transformation of this animal, receive a clear notion of the resurrection, and do not disbelieve the change which Paul proclaims to all. But I perceive that my discourse is exceeding its proper measure. For when I look toward the abundance of what has been spoken, I see myself being carried beyond the ends and the measure; but again, when I look toward the variety of the wisdom shining in the works of creation, I think that I have not even begun the narrative. And yet, to detain you for a longer time is not useless. For what else could one do until evening? Your hosts do not press you, and no banquet awaits you. B Therefore, if it seems good, let us use our corporal fasting for the exhilaration of our souls. You have often served your flesh for the sake of pleasure; today, persist in the service of the soul. *Delight yourself in the Lord, and He will give you the petitions of your heart.* If you are of a mind for wealth, you have spiritual riches: *The judgments of the Lord are true, justified in themselves, more to be desired than gold and much precious stone.* If you are given to enjoyments and a lover of pleasure, you have at hand the utterances of God, which are sweeter than honey and the honeycomb to him who has his spiritual senses in good health. If I dismiss you and dissolve the assembly, some will run to the dice. There are oaths there, and grievous contentions, and the goads of avarice. C A demon stands by, kindling madness through the marked bones, and transferring the same money to one side or the other; now he exalts one man with victory, and causes sadness in another, and again he shows the one exulting, and renders the other ashamed. What is the profit, I ask, of fasting in the body, while the soul is filled with countless evils? And he who does not gamble, but passes the time in other ways, what vain things does he not say? What absurd things does he not hear? For leisure, deprived of the fear of God, is a teacher of wickedness to those who do not know how to use their time. Perhaps, therefore, some benefit will be found in what is being said; but if not, at least it is possible for you through your present occupation not to sin. D Wherefore, to detain you longer is to keep you longer removed from offenses. Yet the things which have been mentioned are sufficient for a fair judge, if one does not look toward the riches of creation, but toward the weakness of our own strength, and toward those things which are sufficient for those who happen to be gathered for the sake of pleasure. The earth received you with its own shoots; the sea with fish, the air with birds. The dry land is ready to show that it is not unequal to these things. But let this be the limit and measure