Annals

is a certain kind of skill found in animals that possess neither reason nor the use of voice. For though you might scarcely find anyone who counts the dolphin among the great whales along with seals, whales, and the zygænae, ^A know that whales observe the place prescribed to them by nature in which they dwell. For they occupy the sea that extends beyond the regions inhabited by mortals and lies beyond the islands; where no further continent remains that might be a hindrance to their dwelling. Nor does any history or usage encourage sailors to venture anything against them. Having followed [nature] to that sea, these whales—resembling the largest mountains in their magnitude, as those who have seen them relate—remain within their own limits, neither harming the islands nor approaching the coastal cities, but remaining in those parts of the sea that were assigned to them from the beginning. Among other whales, moreover, there is one called the "saw-fish": if it sees a ship billowing its sails, it imitates the ship. There is also another whale named the "shield-turtle" ^B which, when it is hungry, opens its mouth; and because a fragrant odor issues from it, smaller fish enter, and thus the beast is sated. We see something of this sort happen also with humans and the evil spirit. For he never ceases to pursue them and, having misled them in various ways, he ensnares them, especially those who are somewhat pusillanimous in spirit; for he devours them, lured by the pleasures and delights of life, although he is never sated by devouring. There are also other kinds of whales, seals, whales, dolphins, zygænae (or libellae), and other such creatures, regarding which this from the ^C Sacred Scriptures must be understood: "And God created the great whales," living in separately prescribed places, so that no one who encounters them might be harmed. "And God created the great whales." In these words, you should not think they are called great because they are larger than a shrimp or a herring, but because, on account of the bulk of their bodies, they can be compared to the largest mountains. Indeed, they often provide the appearance of islands whenever they swim upon the surface of the water. Being of such a size, they do not loiter along the shores or the beaches, but dwell in the Atlantic Ocean. And these animals were created for our fear and trembling. But ^D truly, when you hear that great vessels, which are carried with sails spread by a favorable wind, are brought to a stop so easily by the minute little fish, the echeneis, so as to hold the ship motionless for a long period of time as if it were fixed with roots in the very sea, do you not perceive the power of the Creator in this tiny animal as well? Surely, from all things, as much from the great as from the small, you must take arguments concerning the power of the Creator. What, I pray, happens to the hands of those who…

^A It is clear, then, from this that the noetic serpent also draws men to itself by a certain hiss, by bait, and by the simulation of a good character and good counsel, and associates with them according to its own will, having first estranged them from the water and the Spirit; for it would not otherwise be able to impart its own seed to them unless it moved every string to draw them away from these two. And what need is there to say much and to enumerate things one by one, since there is an infinite number of creeping things? And they are called creeping things because they creep in the water and thus make their course, yet they do not fall under number, so as to fail by being gradually consumed. For those that are more powerful feed upon those that are weaker, yet they are not exhausted; for the increase overcomes the consumption.

^B But observe the voice of God—or rather not the voice of God, but His will alone, which brought forth the omnitudinous kinds of fishes from the waters. For this will became a nature for the waters. Indeed, these waters from the very beginning received a vital power. For if this had not been, the Spirit of God would not have been borne upon them. But being borne, He imparted vital power to the waters, as John Chrysostom says, and because after a little while living creatures would be brought forth from them. And the golden-tongued one, as has been said, says that a vital energy is signified thereby; but the great Basil discourses more broadly on these matters and says thus: “Whether this Spirit means the diffusion of the air, take it that the writer is enumerating for you the parts of the world, namely that God created heaven, earth, water, and air, and that this was already diffusing and flowing. Or—which is indeed more true and has been judged so by those before us—that the Holy Spirit of God is called by this name (for in Scripture no other spirit is named the Spirit of God except the Holy Spirit, which completes the divine and blessed Trinity), and by accepting this understanding you will find greater profit from it. For the Spirit was borne upon them, as a certain Syrian—a marvelous man—used to say, that is, He was cherishing and vivifying the nature of the waters after the image of a hen incubating, and imparting a certain vital power ^C to those being cherished, so that it is clearly demonstrated from this that the Holy Spirit is not excluded from the creative energy.” And so much for the fishes.

It would be consequent to discourse a little also on the birds, because these too have their origin from the waters. For because of this, a certain kinship resides in them toward the swimming creatures. For just as fishes cleave the water, moving forward by the motion of their fins, and steering their rotations and direct impulses by the movement of their tails, so it is possible to see among birds also, as they swim through the air with their wings in a similar manner. And that the origin of birds is from the waters, ^D by...

fish for a living if, at some point, they pull up a torpedo fish ^A within their nets? The air has been allotted a nature that is particularly susceptible to being affected. For it is naturally pervasive, transparent, and permeable to scent, with nothing standing in the way to obstruct it. Thus, it is the cause of many affections and actions. Or do those who suffer from eye ailments not often make those who look at them participants in their condition? Therefore, by means of the air contained within it, the torpedo is able to effect a condition in those who approach it, even if they do not touch it. And this should not be a cause for wonder; for the magnet—which they also call the Heraclean stone—is separated from the iron, and yet we see its efficacy exerted through the intervening air toward the stone. And as for the amatory passion of the palm tree—how the female, even when standing at a distance, bows its branches toward the male, and how it returns again to an upright posture as if having enjoyed the fruition of union—what ear does not fill with wonder at this? It is in no way absurd, then, for the torpedo fish also to enact a condition upon those who hunt it. And why is it that other fish are accustomed to abiding in the Pontus, while the octopus turns away from that northern gulf? Because some fish require cold, such as those that seek out drinkable streams, while others yearn for heat and turn back toward the sea, for this is established as warmer than other waters. At any rate, the octopus is hostile to the Pontic Sea, for the northern sea is by nature colder, and also sweeter than the rest of the sea, since it is flowed into by many large rivers. But both cold and sweetness are contrary to the octopus. I will tell you a sufficient argument as proof. When an octopus has entwined itself with a rock, it clings to it so as not to be pulled away; for this reason, those skilled in hunting pour fresh water onto the rock, and in doing so they obtain the sought-after prey, and the octopus, even against its will, departs from its own nature. It is said that this octopus, when it is hungry, eats its own tentacle and grows another in its place. Know also this: that squids and octopuses possess ink, but, as Aristotle says, it is located near the nose, whereas in the cuttlefish it is found near the belly ^B, and in greater quantity. For it lacks any other defense, such as the octopus's change of color; for it changes its hue according to the rock to which it attaches its tentacles, although without the white color. For these are bloodless animals, and for this reason they are cold and timorous. Just as with some who are frightened the belly is stirred, and with others an excretion flows from the bladder, so it happens to these of necessity—to emit their ink out of cowardice. But nature ^C uses this excretion at the same time for the safety and aid of the animal. All bloodless animals are content with very little nourishment, not so much because of their smallness as because of their coldness; for heat digests

the food, and what is cold is in need of nourishment and is itself devoid of nourishment. But the species of cicadas is even more devoid of nourishment because it is also colder than other animals; for this reason, becoming enlivened in the summer season, it begins its song. A sufficient nourishment for the cicada is the moisture remaining from its body, which it possesses from its birth, just as the ephemera (day-long) animals that come to be around the Pontus; however, those live for only the duration of one day, and for this reason they are called ephemera, but these live for longer. ^A Soft-shelled animals are called crabs, lobsters, crawfish, and shrimp. These, with the exception of the shrimp, have claws, not for the sake of walking, but for grasping something. Whence also the right ones are larger; for animals are naturally accustomed to perform actions more with their right parts. Regarding these, the prophet David says, "And those that traverse the paths of the seas." Cuttlefish, squids, and octopuses have eight feet, and the octopus alone has the largest ones. Fish have a difference also concerning their mouth; for some have the mouth directly in front, while others have it on the underside, such as dolphins and rays, and for this reason they take their food by turning upside down. No fish has testicles, neither inside nor outside, nor does any other of the footless animals, which is why snakes do not either. Dolphins and whales and all creatures of the whale kind have no gills, but they have lungs instead. For gills are useful for those that do not breathe, and it is impossible to have them and to breathe. These are in a way both land and water-dwelling creatures, land-dwelling in that they receive air, and water-dwelling in that they are footless and take their food from the water. However, the soft-bodied ones, such as squids, cuttlefish, and others of that kind, are all fleshy and soft; for they do not happen to have anything bony or earthy concealed within them. Now, so that their body might not be easily corruptible, just as is the case with fleshy things, it has a nature between flesh and nerve; for it is soft like flesh, but it has tension like a nerve. ^B It is necessary for you to know this also regarding fish: the male and the female swim separately and do not copulate, but they are born without seed from the water and the breath of the wind, pre-signifying from this our spiritual and seedless birth from water and spirit, as the most divine Anastasius says. But this, too, is not worth letting pass by you: the land snake, approaching the shore, hisses, and by hissing it invites the moray eel to a union. Thus, the sea snake, or rather the moray eel, hearing the hiss, immediately returns. And having entwined with each other, the land snake having first vomited up [its poison], each goes off to its own place. ^C

^A If, however, a bird, by the necessity of nature, is drawn to cross with another, it indicates that a certain satisfaction is derived from this. But if this is the case, what shall we do—we, who have been honored with reason, yet are to such a degree firmly rooted in the pleasures of this life?

And what should be said concerning the pelican, of which David also makes mention, saying: *I have become like a pelican of the wilderness*? This bird builds its nest on the highest rocks, taking care to avoid potential enemies. But the malicious serpent, when it sees the father flying off a little way from its young, immediately seizes the opportunity for mischief. And since it cannot gain access to the nest, it pours its venom upon them; for, having first surveyed from where the wind blows, it breathes the venom upon them from afar and thus brings about their destruction. But the father, flying back to them again, and by some natural instinct perceiving the treachery, knows how they may be restored to life; for it flutters gently over their heads, and striking its sides with its wings, lets fall drops of blood upon them, and from this, the dead fledglings paradoxically come to life again. ^B Recognize, therefore, my beloved, for what reason this paradoxical affection of the pelican for its offspring exists. For the Lord intended to outline all human affairs through this bird from the beginning—that paradise was created, and that the first-formed were placed within it, that the intellectual serpent brought about the death of their souls, and that the Creator of all, God, moved by fatherly affection like a father over his dead children, stoops down to them, becomes human, and accepts all the rest, and is finally raised upon the cross, and from his side pours forth life-giving blood for the re-formation of those first-formed ones who had died by the venom of the serpent. It was for this reason that he originally instilled such affection for its offspring in the pelican. For David, anticipating this, said: *I have become like a pelican of the wilderness.* For the pelican is Christ himself, the nest is paradise, the fledglings are the first-formed, the treacherous serpent is the devil himself, the venom of the serpent is the deception of the devil, death is the separation from God, and the paternal affection is the incarnation of the Word of God for our sake. ^C The fluttering of the wings above the fledglings is the hanging of Christ upon the cross above the first-formed; the striking of the sides is the piercing of the divine side; and finally, there is the life-giving blood dripping onto the dead—for if it were not life-giving, it would not have granted the resurrection to those lying below. Well, therefore, did the Lord say through the prophet: *I have become like a pelican of the wilderness.*

The Gospel according to Luke says concerning the ravens that they neither sow nor reap, and God feeds them. For what reason is mention made of the ravens specifically by name here? It is said that the raven ^D

^A It is evident from this that the intelligible serpent also attracts men with a certain hiss and bait, through a simulation of a kind character and good counsel, and associates with them according to its own will, having first made them depart from the water and the Spirit; for it would not otherwise be able to impart its own seed to them, unless it had moved every cable to draw them away from there. And what need is there to say many words and to enumerate things one by one, since the creeping things are without number? And they are "creeping things" because they creep in the water and thus make their own journey, yet they do not fall under number, so they might not fail by being gradually consumed. For the stronger ones feed upon the weaker, and they are not used up, for the increase overcomes the consumption.

^B But observe the voice of God, or rather not the voice of God, but the will alone, which brought forth the diverse kinds of fish from the waters. For this will became a nature for the waters. These waters, indeed, even from the very beginning, received a vital power. For if this had not been, the Spirit of God would not have been borne upon them. But being borne, it gave the vital power to the waters, as John Chrysostom says, and because after a little while living things would be brought forth from them. And the golden-tongued one, as has been said, says that a vital energy is hereby signified; but the great Basil discourses more broadly concerning these things, and says as follows: "Whether this Spirit speaks of the diffusion of the air, take the writer as enumerating the parts of the world for you, that God made heaven, earth, water, and air, and this last already diffusing and flowing. Or, which is even more true and has been judged so by those before us, the Holy Spirit of God is referred to (for no other Spirit of God is named in the Scripture than the Holy Spirit, which is the completion of the divine and blessed Trinity), and if you accept this understanding, you will find greater benefit from it. For the Spirit was being borne over them, as a certain Syrian, an admirable man, used to say, that is, he was warming and quickening ^C the nature of the waters after the image of a hen incubating and imparting a certain vital power to the things being warmed, whereby it is clearly demonstrated that the Holy Spirit is not excluded even from the creative energy."

And so much concerning the fish. It would be consistent to discourse a little concerning the birds, because these too have had their origin from the waters. Through this, therefore, there is also a certain kinship belonging to them with the swimming things. For just as the fish cut through the water, moving forward by the motion of their fins, and steering their rotations and straight impulses for themselves by the movement of their tail, ^D so also among the birds it is possible to see them swimming through the air with their wings in a similar manner. And that the origin of the birds is from the waters, [is shown] by

^A considers its own offspring to be hateful, and for that reason casts aside all care for its chicks. But it is reported that they are nourished by the providence of God through certain small animals that are born from the air for their sake and fall into their mouths. This very thing, I ask, how great an admiration does it merit? When bees have once detected drones, they attack them sparingly and gently, and drive them away from their company. If, however, they catch them again, they put them to death. Some of them act as a bodyguard to the king, others keep the night watches—because the others are resting at that time, wearied by their labors—and others have the task of carrying the dead out. One ought not to wonder if the air is changed by the increases and decreases of the moon, since one can see this in certain animals as well. For they say that the ibis does not see anywhere when the heaven is moonless, but keeps its eyes closed and remains without food. The ape called the cercops displays its motions more clearly; for when the moon increases, the circle of its eyes is dilated to him, and when it decreases, it is contracted. But also the weasel, when the moon’s light is fading, finds that its liver is diminished; and when the moon is waxing again, this same part is increased along with it. They also say that in the Hydaspes river a stone is produced which they call *lichne*, which, as the moon waxes, emits the sound of a melody. And that in a certain Celtic river there exists a fish called by the natives *clopias*, which turns white as the moon increases and black as it wanes. These things the great Anastasius has encompassed in his work on the six days of the creation.

^B But also for the sake of those who do not believe or rather, one might say, who laugh at the resurrection, as the great Epiphanius says, some strange things were preordained to happen. The *phasca* dies for forty days and rises again. The *myops*—or gadfly—dies for six months and rises again. The phoenix, the Arabian bird, is said to be unique, solitary in its creation; every five hundred years it suffers this, and provides a clear demonstration of the resurrection. For the Greeks themselves also recount concerning it that, foreknowing its end, it comes to Egypt and stands opposite the sun, then it is turned to ash, and from its dust a worm is born, and it itself is transformed again into a winged creature. This phoenix, as we have said, is accustomed to happen after five hundred years. The Libyan ostrich is indeed a bird and has wings, but it does not fly because its feathers are not useful for flight; for they are hair-like. It is bipedal like a bird, but has cloven feet like a quadruped. Further, no bird is a single-egg layer ^C except for the cuckoo, due to the coldness of its nature. And that it is cold is clear from its cowardice; for if it were not a coward, it would not be chased by all the birds, and for this reason it laid its eggs in the nests of others. Everywhere, coldness is the cause of cowardice.

the fact that not one of the winged creatures lacks feet, for the reason that its sustenance is gained from the earth. And all necessarily [need them]; for to birds of prey, the sharpness of their claws is granted for catching their prey, while for the rest the service of their feet is provided for the conduct of their life. Few birds are weak-footed, being unfit either for walking or for hunting with their feet, such as the swallows and those called swifts, for whom food has been devised from things borne about in the air.

Mark this, then. For there is one construction for seed-eating birds, and another for the carnivorous, suited to the manner of their diet: the sharpness of claws, a hooked beak, and swift wings, so that the prey may be captured easily. For this reason, also, the claws of animals are harder than those of man, for the latter’s [hands] were made softer because his skin also is softer, from which the nails take their origin; and because the hardness and softness of nails were bestowed upon each of the animals according to their use. Furthermore, among winged creatures, some are leaderless and, as it were, autonomous, while others submit to being placed under a leader, such as the cranes. But also the bees perform their tasks under a king and a sort of battalion commander, nor do they consent to go out to the meadows until they see their king having initiated the flight. This [king] is not appointed by vote, but possesses from nature the primacy over all, distinguished in magnitude, in shape, and in the gentleness of his character. For the king has a sting, but he does not use it for vengeance. These are certain unwritten laws of nature: that those who attain the highest powers should be slow to punish. In this way, those [bees] that do not follow the example of the king die from the wound of the sting, finding the reward deserved by their own cruelty. It is also worthy of admiration how cranes undertake their night watches by rotation; while some sleep, others walk in a circle and provide them complete safety during their sleep. Then, when the time for the watch is fulfilled, the one that gave the cry betakes itself to sleep, and the one that received the turn, [repaying] the safety it [the former] chanced to enjoy, renders it back to the rest.

Thus, therefore, the behavior of the storks also brings everyone to astonishment, being no less than the things already mentioned. For they surround their father, who has shed his feathers through old age, circle him, and warm him with their own wings; and, providing food abundantly, they supply him with assistance in flying, gently lifting him on both sides with their wings. And this is so famous to all that from this event some have come to call the return of benefits “antipelargosis” (mutuality of the storks). Let no one, therefore, despair of his own life on account of poverty. And who would not be exceedingly moved by the ingenuity of the swallow

of dryness, it is deadened. Therefore, the snake avoids rue for this reason, just as it also avoids winter, on account of the excess of cold.

Thus, indeed, all animals know by nature what is salutary and what is destructive. And regarding the presages of a change in the air which exist among them, what rational prudence do they not conceal? Where, for instance, the sheep, as winter progresses, feeds ravenously, as if provisioning itself against the coming scarcity. Indeed, one of those men of industry ^A even observed the land hedgehog devising for itself double breathings for its own hibernation, and, should the North wind be about to blow, blocking the northern opening, and when the South wind shifts, moving to the northern one. But one might also see a great abundance of the senses among animals. For if this were not so, a lamb would not, while leaping up among a thousand sheep in the sheepfolds, recognize the color and voice of its mother and hasten to her, and this after running past many udders that were burdened. For there is in them a sense sharper than our own apprehension, according to which there is available to each a discernment of its own kind. The puppy does not yet have teeth, and yet it defends itself by its mouth against one who has hurt it. The calf does not yet have horns, and yet it knows where its weapons will grow. Well, therefore, did Hippocrates say, "The natures of animals are untaught." And the memory of the dog—which of those who are ungrateful toward their benefactors does it not shame? Seeing that many dogs are remembered to have died along with their masters who were murdered in the wilderness. Indeed, some, while the foul deed was still fresh, guided those seeking the murderers and caused the criminals to be brought to justice. For a certain dog, having seen in an inn the murderer of its master, and from there having used an uncontrolled barking against him, gave rise to a suspicion regarding the man, by which he was led to judgment as a criminal and punished.

^B See, then, the wisdom of God: how to carnivorous animals He adapted sharp teeth, for such was their need, according to the nature of their food. And for those that are armed with only half the number of teeth, He provided many and varied storehouses for their food; for because at the first instance the food is not sufficiently ground up, He gave them the capacity for that which has been swallowed to be brought back up, so that, having been softened by rumination, it might be made suitable for the animal being nourished. But animals also differ from one another in their very weapons. For according to the character of their souls, as Aristotle also says, God gives also the formations of the body and their activities. Of what sort of thing do I speak? To the

^A? For when she constructs her nest, she carries the twigs with her mouth; but since she cannot lift the mud with her feet (for they are completely unsuited for any such service), she dips the tips of her wings in water and then rolls them in the finest dust. Thus she contrives the matter of the mud, and by binding the twigs together little by little with the mud as if with some glue, she rears her fledglings in it. If one should pierce their eyes, she has a certain medicinal aid from nature, by which she restores the sight of her offspring. The halcyon is a sea bird ^B. It is her nature to nest by the very shores in the winter time, placing her eggs on the sand, even when the sea is being dashed against the land by many violent winds; yet all the winds fall asleep and the sea waves grow calm, because the halcyon is brooding—for seven days, to be sure. And since they also have need of food, God, the great giver, has granted her another seven days for the growth of the fledglings. So all mariners are aware of this, and they call those days "Halcyon Days." They say also that the turtledove, once separated from its mate, admits no fellowship with another, in memory of the bird with whom it was once paired. Let ^C women hear how the dignity of widowhood is to be preferred, even among the irrational animals, to the indecency of multiple marriages. The eagle is most unjust in the feeding of its offspring. For when it has brought forth two fledglings, it thrusts one to the ground, driving it away with blows of its wings, rejecting the offspring it produced because of the labor of feeding it. But the *phene* (the osprey) does not allow this one to perish, but takes it up and rears it with its own fledglings. However, the eaglet that the eagle takes and rears, it takes and flies together with it; and if it sees it bravely swimming through the air and gazing sharply at the brilliance of the sun, it keeps it as its own, but if not, it casts it out as a bastard. But the inventiveness shown by the crow ^D is worthy of praise, for it follows its fledglings even when they are already flying, feeding and rearing them for a long time. Regarding the crows, the great Basil also says this in his discourse *On Providence*: “It is a great wonder how the crows fly off together with the storks, acting as their escort and accompanying them—in my opinion, they even provide them with a certain alliance against hostile birds. The evidence for this is, first, that not a single crow is seen during that time; and then, that they return with wounds, bringing clear signs of their alliance.” That which is more paradoxical than the rest is that they say vultures beget without copulation, and this despite them being very long-lived, their life extending even to a hundred years. For what reason is this, and for what purpose? It is so that no one might laugh at the mystery

hare and the deer, being timid by nature, He gave the faculty of running, that they might escape the hands of the hunters. To the boar, which is spirited and pugnacious, He gave tusks; to the bull, horns; and to the lion, teeth and claws. And thus He armed all things fittingly, but brought man ^A into life naked, and gave him comfort in the abundance of reason; for in reason there resides for him dominion over all things. By means of reason he brings down the birds from the air; he draws the fish from the waters. By means of reason he makes all things that are necessary for the preservation of his life—houses, garments, clothing, weapons, and suchlike. On this account God also gave him hands, that the reason proceeding from within might perform through these all things that it should choose. Accordingly, the great Basil also, in his interpretation of the ^B prophet Isaiah, discourses concerning these things, saying: "To the irrational animals He gave easy means for living; food provided automatically, natural shelter, and the covering of hair and feathers were granted to them by that Power which governs all things; but having brought man into the world naked, He gave him reason instead of all else, from which were produced the supplying arts—architecture, weaving, and the rest—the soul making up what is lacking to the bodies by the abundance of reason." It might indeed have been possible for all things to be born together ^C with man, along with his reason, in greater generosity; but the grace of reason would not have been manifested thereby. For if there were no necessity, by what means would his active energy have been revealed? For this reason, also, in irrational animals the senses—since reason is absent—are more acute; for the Maker of all things most wisely compensated for the lack of reason by the abundance of the senses.

But look, even in these things, at the care of God. Why is the neck of the camel long? That it may be level with its feet, and it may reach the herbage on which it lives. But as for those animals that do not get their life from the ^D earth, nor are compelled to bow down to the ground—since they are carnivorous—they have a short neck, set within the shoulders. For this reason, also, the proboscis is given to the elephant, bringing food and drink in place of the neck. And since its body is fashioned as something very large for the amazement of those who see it, for this very reason its feet are unjointed, like certain columns supporting the weight; for if it had been set upon soft and fluid limbs, the joints would have been constantly slipping. Moreover, some report that the elephant lives for three hundred years. But, he says, I do not admire the elephant more on account of its size than the mouse, because it is a terror to the elephant; just as I also admire the most minute sting of the scorpion, how the Craftsman hollowed it out like a pipe, so that through it the poison might be injected into those wounded. But they also say that the elephant does not drink before it has troubled the waters with its proboscis. Why? Because the elephant is frightened seeing its own shadow in the water. For this reason, they say, the Indians wait for a moonless night, when they transport

miracle of our Lord, as if it were impossible for a virgin to give birth and yet still remain a virgin; He has provided from nature itself nearly infinite grounds for believing in things that are otherwise paradoxical. And thus does the great Basil discourse concerning these matters.

Others, however, who have studied the natures of animals, recount the prodigy that vultures gestate for three years. How is this heard? There is no such thing as a male vulture to be seen; for the laws of nature ordain that they breed without any pairing; whence it is that their entire race consists of females. Understanding this, and fearing for the desolation of their offspring, the whole race embarks on a kind of expedition to reproduce. They observe a most excellent device: they fly facing the South Wind. If there is no South Wind, they spread their wings to the kindred wind, the Eurus; then, keeping their beaks open, they are filled by the wind rushing in, and they bring forth living young, and not "wind-eggs." This is why nature requires so much time for the bringing to perfection of the living creature: for it is difficult and extremely laborious for nature to consolidate the wind and, from what is most subtle, to fashion a living beast. Therefore, when you hear that the All-Holy One conceived without any union, since the Holy Spirit had first overshadowed her and, according to the prophet, the Lord had come from Teman, do not disbelieve the fact at all, even if in truth it seems great and paradoxical; for it was precisely for this reason that even the supernatural pregnancy of vultures was so wondrously prepared by God. It is said that when the vulture becomes pregnant, it travels to India, and having found a stone—the one called the "Eutocium" (easy-birth stone)—it sits upon it, being gripped by birth pangs, and thus gives birth. The stone itself is round, the size of a hazelnut, and when moved it gives forth a sound like a bell, because of another stone moving inside it. They also report this about the vulture: that if it is anointed with rose oil, it dies.

One might also not wonder less at the account of the ravens mentioned. The ravens suffer a certain malady during the summer season, and the malady is a flux of the belly. Consequently, rivers and springs and ponds are of no use to the ravens during the summer, lest the moisture of the body cause an increase in the distress of the belly. And so the ravens know the art of diet, not having been taught the remedies of Hippocrates, nor of Chiron, nor of Machaon; and thus, though they long for the rivers, they cannot drink from them, but suffer a harsher punishment as if they were indeed Tantaluses being punished.

It is also worth your admiration why the cicadas begin their song in the middle of summer. Cicadas are cold by nature, which is why they begin their song after the summer solstice, and they pursue their own cry as the sun begins to rise. On which account they are most tuneful at midday. The female cicada, however, being much colder than the male, sits silent in the trees, as if she had been taught the teachings of Pythagoras.

Man alone, among animals, stands on two feet, while with the others progression occurs by degrees. In some animals, beloved son, custom truly becomes nature. For observe, I pray you, the Libyan animals, which during the summer, when they are most thirsty, abstain from drinking, but during the winter, when they are less thirsty, they drink. For this reason, it happens entirely that Libya labors under a lack of water during the summer. Therefore, in the winter time, they draw water, when they have an abundance of it. And when they have become accustomed to this in those places, even when carried to other regions, they retain their habit. And concerning these, we have spoken enough. ^A And those navigating who have exhausted their supply are quite sufficiently comforted from them; for then, sponging up the vapors rising from them, they find a remedy for their needs. Well, therefore, did the prophet say: "He who draws the water of the sea and pours it out upon the face of the earth." For the air, having been condensed by the vapors from below, releases drops and makes the earth fruitful. Likewise, the sun, when it turns from the southern regions toward the northern, produces summer, not only drawing up waters and rendering our bodies drier, but also drying up the rivers, even if they are smaller. By the same logic, it happens that they report the Nile overflows at a time when the other rivers are low; that is, in the middle of summer, when the celestial sun moves through the northern part of the zodiac, and is furthest away from the other rivers, which are hindered by it, but is very far from this one. The nature of vapors themselves is nothing other than water, specifically attenuated. These, therefore, are lifted up by the attraction of the sun, as has been said, and in the heights, the air is condensed, and rains, snows, hails, and such things, being born of moisture, fall down. And thus much for these matters.

I do not doubt, however, beloved son, after you have now read those things written by Moses concerning the first heaven and concerning the firmament, and the waters comprehended between the two heavens, that you will study completely what your diligence is to learn, so that you may search out what sublime truth can be elicited from these. For this reason, I bring forward to you the divine man, Anastasius the Sinaite, who, having received from Paul ^C all matters, both celestial and terrestrial, showing them to be as it were likenesses and images of Christ, interpreted most things in the old covenant according to the allegorical sense. ^B Wherefore, hear what he hands down concerning these two heavens. The nature of the heavens, he says, is incomprehensible to us, and it seems to me to be a likeness of that ineffable and incomprehensible divinity, just as the firmament below has a similarity to human nature, which he took from the lower parts; while in the meantime, the water in the midst of the two heavens, comprehended by us, represents a soul void of all taint, and the density of flesh. For behold, that heaven above is called heaven from the beginning, just as God is God from the beginning, but the lower and material firmament is not so from the beginning, but after its conjunction with that superior one, it received the name of heaven, and when that most holy body of Christ, on account of its deification and union, is called God, not by its own nature. ^D The same Paul witnesses to this, calling the holy flesh of Christ a veil, which was fashioned below and from blood, just as the firmament itself was made from the lower waters. You have what you should think in this part.

^A Observe then: when a snake is struck, it exposes its entire body to the blows but conceals its head, as if it knew that its life is contained within it. So too we, in a time of persecution, must do likewise: we must indeed surrender everything, provided that we retain and preserve our head, which is Christ and the faith itself. When the same serpent has aged and begun to suffer from a dimness of the eyes, it first lives temperately and remains fasting for a time; then, crawling through a certain narrow passage into the earth and shedding its entire skin in an unusual way, it emerges young again. So too we, having grown old in our sins, must walk the narrow and constricted path, and thus, being renewed, return to our ancient state and condition. If at any time a serpent is thirsty and is about to touch water in a well, it first vomits its venom and only then approaches the spring. So too we, when we are about to approach that divine cup to heal the sins that burn us, must first cast away all malice, and thus approach the holy mysteries. Therefore, we understand that it was aptly said by the Lord concerning what has been mentioned: "Be wise as serpents." And so much for these matters.

^B Know also, beloved, that there are various and diverse kinds of serpents. For some kill more quickly, others more slowly; some bring destruction by their bites, others in a different way. Take the serpent called the basilisk, of which the wise Galen also makes mention in his discourse to Piso on the theriac; it kills those who look upon it by its gaze alone. Hence the Sacred Scripture says that the envious eye is in no way different from such a serpent. For just as some destructive influence flows from this animal which possesses the power to cause death immediately, so too from the eyes of the envious. And the wondrous thing is that they sometimes bring destruction even to their own kin and acquaintances. Yet let this seem strange to no one, for they do what they are naturally configured to do, not what they might wish. And do not be astonished at this; for if, as Plutarch says, Eutelidas fascinated his own eyes by seeing them in the water and being amazed at his own beauty, how much more will the envious eye bring destruction to others, casting a poisoned dart, as it were, into those whom it surveys. And this is something that experience and former times have long since demonstrated; for the eyes both act and are acted upon, sometimes emitting, sometimes receiving, as we see happen in the case of those who are in love and those who are loved. The great Basil, in explaining the inscription of the thirty-third Psalm, says: "But I myself reject the notion ^C that eyes shoot forth a kind of poisoned dart, as something common and introduced into the chambers of women by old wives. I say, however, that the demons who hate what is good, whenever they find inclinations compatible with their own, use them entirely according to their own will and pleasure; thus they even use the eyes of those who practice fascination for the service of their own will." The serpent we are now discussing, therefore—that is, the basilisk—damages those who look upon it not only by its gaze ^D

^A If the bird is ever forced by the necessity of nature to pair with another, it implies that it is representing the shame stemming from this. But if these things are so, what shall we do, we who are honored with reason, yet are still so firmly held by the pleasures of life? And what must we say about the pelican, of which David also makes mention, saying: "I have become like a pelican in the wilderness"? This bird builds its nest on the highest rocks, taking care to avoid malicious plotters. But the malicious serpent, when it sees the father has flown away a little distance from its children, immediately sets about its treachery. And because it cannot approach the nest, it pours its venom upon them; for having first scouted from afar from where the wind blows, and having breathed the venom onto them from there, it brings about their destruction. But the father, flying back again to them and understanding the treachery through certain natural reasons, knows how they might come to life again; for it flutters gently right over their heads, and beating its sides on either side with its wings, it releases drops of blood upon them, and from this, the dead chicks come back to life in a paradoxical manner.

^B Recognize, therefore, beloved, for what reason this paradoxical sympathy for its offspring exists in the pelican. For the Lord wished to outline from of old all that concerns us in this bird: that Paradise was created, that the first-created were placed in it, that the intellectual serpent caused their psychic death, and that the Creator of all, God, as a loving father, bends down over his children who are dead, is called a man, and accepts all the rest, until finally he is lifted up on the cross, and pours out the life-giving blood from his side for the restoration of those first-created ones who had died by the venom of the serpent—he planted such sympathy for its offspring in the pelican from the beginning. For this cause David beforehand also said: "I have become like a pelican in the wilderness." For the pelican is Christ himself, the nest is Paradise, the chicks are the first-created, ^C the malicious serpent is the devil himself, the venom of the serpent is the deception entirely from the devil, death is the separation from God, and the paternal sympathy is the incarnation of the Word of God for our sake. The fluttering above the chicks is the suspension of Christ on the cross above the first-created, the beating of the sides is the piercing of the divine side, and finally the life-giving blood dripping onto the dead; for if it were not life-giving, it would not have granted resurrection to those lying below. Well, therefore, did the Lord say through the prophet: "I have become like a pelican in the wilderness."

The Gospel according to Luke says concerning the ravens that they neither sow nor reap, and God feeds them. For what reason is mention made of the ravens by name here? It is said, therefore, that they are...

fed by the providence of God on small creatures that come to exist in the air and fall into their mouths. And how worthy of wonder is this also? That, although they are mothers, they do not feed their own nestlings; ^A for the bees, once they have caught the drones, strike them sparingly and release them, but if they stop them again, they put them to death. And some of them act as a bodyguard for the king, while others keep watch during the night, because those that have toiled are then resting, and the task of others is to carry out the dead. One ought not to be surprised if the air changes with the waxing and waning of the moon, since it is possible to see this same thing even in some animals. For they say that the ibis does not see anywhere when the sky is moonless, but remains with eyes closed and without food. The cercopithecus has more clear operations: for when the moon waxes, the circle of its eyes widens, but when it wanes, it contracts. But also the weasel loses part of its liver when the moon is waning; and when it waxes again, that part of it increases. They also say that a stone called "lichnes" is born in the Hydaspes river, which emits a sound of music when the moon is waxing. Item, in a Celtic river, they say there lives a fish called locally the "clopias," which turns white when the moon is waxing and black when it is waning. ^B Great Anastasius has included these things in his Six Days' Work. But also, because of those who do not believe or rather, one might say, who mock the resurrection, as the great Epiphanius says, certain wondrous things have been ordained to occur. The phascusa dies for forty days and rises again. The tabanus (gadfly) dies for six months and rises again. The Phoenix is said to be an Arabian bird, solitary, without a mate in creation; every five hundred years it suffers this and presents a bright resurrection. For even the Greeks themselves relate concerning it that, foreknowing its end, it comes to Egypt and stands opposite the sun, then it is turned to ash, and from its dust a worm is born, and it itself is transformed again into a winged creature. This phoenix, as we have said, is accustomed to happen after five hundred years. The Libyan sparrow is indeed a bird, and winged, but it does not fly, because its feathers are not useful for flying; for they are like hair. And it is two-legged like a bird, but it has cloven feet like a four-legged animal. ^C But also, no bird produces a single offspring, except only the cuckoo, due to the coldness of its nature. That it is cold is clear from its cowardice; for if it were not a coward, it would not be pursued by all the birds, and for this reason it laid its eggs in strange nests. For coldness is everywhere the cause of cowardice.

^A This illness, which they call hydrophobia from the fear of water, approaches. For those who have been bitten by rabid dogs fear water, whether they see it or approach it. Some dogs bark and bite as they attack, and by such a bite they propagate the evil itself. But as for what the cause of the remaining symptoms may be, it is clear. For when the venom has occupied all the limbs and even the brain itself, it brings about such symptoms. But as for the reason why they fear water, some have said that this occurs because of an excessive dryness, as if they were entirely estranged from the substance of moisture. Rufus, however, declares that a certain kind of melancholy happens to them, the venom mimicking that humor on account of which others fear different things. And what need is there for many words here? For just as in the case of the melancholic we see it happen that some seem to themselves to be brute animals and because of this imitate their voices, others believe themselves to be earthenware vessels and for this reason fear vehemently that they might be broken, while others think Atlas is falling upon them and therefore shout in a strange manner, so too one may see this same thing happen to those bitten by rabid dogs. For the venom of the dog, like some noxious humor, having occupied their brain, makes them fear water; and in this fear, the imagination of the dog that bit them arises; and in this way they are convulsed and finally exchange life for death. It is said, indeed, that a certain philosopher who was bitten by a rabid dog, having entered a bath and seen the dog in the basin, said, without being terrified: "What does a dog have in common with a bath?" But enough of these matters.

^B The bear delivers flesh that has neither figure nor form. But afterward, by licking it with its mouth, it creates joints in it. The cubs of the same do not suckle from teats, but grow by sucking their own feet. The bear gives birth before the season, so that it may consort with the male. But the bear also runs risks in giving birth. When in labor at night, it pays heed to the star of the Bear, and in this way it gives birth easily. The bear is very gluttonous, and during the winter it sits in its den and, being hungry, licks its foot and is nourished; this is unique to it alone among terrestrial animals, just as the octopus is among those of the sea. ^C But also, the nomads of the wild asses, when they give birth to males, cut their genitals so that they may not sire offspring. The wild ass is a very dry animal, and on this account it is also thirsty; ^D for regarding this, David, discussing waters, says thus: "The wild asses shall expect them for their thirst." It is also said that the fox, when lacking food, lies supine as if dead and holds its breath, and then, as it swells up, the birds, seeing it, descend upon it and touch it as if it were dead. Then, leaping up suddenly, the one thought to be dead seizes and devours them. But the wild goat is a most swift animal and lives among the crags, and if one pursues it, it leaps upon its horns and sustains no injury.

^A Nor do I wish you to pass by in silence, my beloved, a matter which is more strange and remarkable than the others, which Aelian records concerning the bird called the bee-eater. The Bee-eater, he says, is a bird that flies backward. And it occurs to me to marvel at the noteworthy reference which this animal embodies. As for the cock crowing at night at specific hours, not long before the rising of the sun, some have explained the cause in this way: that since this animal is naturally very hot and greedy in its appetite for food, on account of its innate heat it digests the food it has been given more quickly, and by the natural greed of its constitution it announces its appetite in advance, as if inviting one to feed it. Others say that each of the things existing and happening here is assigned to one of the luminaries, just as the lotus plant is solar, whence it spreads its leaves when the luminary rises, and draws them in when it sets. In this way, then, the cock is also under the solar order. For this reason, it rejoices in a mysterious and natural way when its own leader returns toward the east, and as if composing a song for him, it clears its voice and cries aloud. ^B And these men say these things; but you, my beloved, do not fear to count such sounds among the myths. For God, the guardian of all things, ordained for the cock to sing at night, so that from this we might be stirred from our beds even against our will, and not spend the whole night in vanity, but that some might turn to their work, and others might rise for divine praise; for God is not averse to teaching us in such ways, both through words and through animals. And pay attention to Solomon saying, "Go to the ant, O sluggard." ^C Know also this, that they say a fly does not settle on Attic honey. For one can see Attica abounding in thyme, upon which Attic bees settle more frequently. From this it has a sharper scent. Therefore, just as if it were something sacred, a fly does not settle on Attic honey. Know also in addition to this that flies and bees and ants are destroyed by oil, because they have narrow breathing passages, and the sticky oil obstructs them. Snakes experience this too, because of things with heavy odors; for the narrowness of their breathing passages is obstructed by the thickness of the fumigations. ^D For this reason, even the stag's horn when burned, the snake flees, and all the more so the snake; for it forces it to lose consciousness. In addition to all these things, nature did not give the birds a bladder or kidneys, because much moisture was needed for the production of feathers. But also, the exercise in flying consumes this. They also have dung that comes out with a considerable amount of moisture. And for this reason, the urine

PART II OF THE ANNALS

^A and many times. At that time he approaches the high priest Abiathar; then he also ate the showbread. From there he flees again to Abimelech; then he also feigns the symptoms of those suffering from epilepsy.

In addition to these things, David, finding Saul ^B once and twice, and being able to kill him easily, did not wish to do this, attributing everything concerning himself to God. And so much for these matters.

The Philistines again wage war against the Jews, for which reason Achish also calls the same as allies. Saul also attacks Mount Gilboa, and seeing the crowded camp of the Gentiles, he was disturbed, and his heart failed him. And he inquired of the Lord through the Ephod, and He did not answer him; for if they were not pleasing to Him, He would not listen to them. For this reason, he seeks a ventriloquist, even though their kind had previously gone out of his city, as he had formerly been pious toward God. Ventriloquists were so called because they had a demon sitting in their belly ^C telling tales oracles about the future. That woman is persuaded with difficulty, and she brings up the soul of Samuel from Hades, as Josephus records. For the one wise in divine things, Theodoret, calls this account impious and unholy; for he is not persuaded that the soul of a corpse can be brought up from Hades, let alone that of such a great prophet. But others, not wishing to accept this account as unholy, say that a certain deceiver of the people, a demon, reported what concerned Saul to the ventriloquist. Theodoret accepts neither the first, as being impious, nor again the second; for if it were a demon that appeared, it would not have spoken true words. Therefore, he says that God Himself, having fashioned the form of Samuel, willed to ^D declare the sentence; for He said also through one of the prophets: "If you go to the false prophet, I, the Lord God, will answer through him." So, through Balaam, He blessed the people, and through an impious diviner the things to come were announced. These things come to pass, and the Philistines attack the Hebrews. Finally, Saul and his sons fall. However, Saul, having received many wounds, and not being able to endure, orders one of his men to apply his sword, so that he might not be handed over to the hands of the enemies. But he did not obey. Therefore he falls upon his own sword, and not even then being able to bring the end upon himself, he persuades one of the Amalekites, and he finishes him. And the Philistines, despoiling the enemies, encounter Saul and his sons, and having cut off their heads, they carry them through all the country, and they crucify their bodies outside the wall, as Josephus records.

^A of whose extremity no one has seen because it is covered with snow. And such is the opinion held by Theodoret, but the great Basil says that "into one gathering" was well said. For in order that the water flowing in might not overflow the regions receiving it, and by going on from one to another might not incessantly flood the entire continent, He said, "Let the waters be gathered into one gathering," that is to say, let no other be separated from this one, but let that which is gathered remain in the first collection. Accordingly, the Ecclesiastes also says that all the torrents run into the sea, and the sea is not filled, because the waters have their flowing from the divine command: "Let the waters ^B be gathered." And that the sea is inscribed within boundaries is from the first legislation. Take heed, beloved. "The water was gathered into one gathering, and the dry land appeared." Because the earth was invisible and unorganized as long as the water was floating above it, for this reason the water was gathered into its gatherings, and thus that which was previously invisible became visible. Then, indeed, it was then adorned with all kinds of plants by divine command, as has been mentioned above.

But if you also ask for what reason the earth received its proper adornment part by part, and was not produced finished from the beginning, I will tell you, or rather not I, but he who is golden-tongued. Since the earth is our mother and nurse, since all have been born from it and return to it again, ^C and since it grants us to enjoy everything, in order that everything might not be attributed to it and divine worship on that account be offered to it, as if it had become the cause of so many good things for us by its own power, for this reason He first covers it with water and makes it unorganized, and after this He gathers the water into one gathering, and thus prepares it to be seen. But this also is worth asking, where the water was gathered, so that from this the dry land might be seen, if the entire face of the earth, as the Scripture says, was covered by the waters. Justin the philosopher and witness of Christ and the great Basil say that cavities were ^D made at that time by divine command (and the islands found in various places are irrefutable witnesses of this fact), and thus these received the water that had subsided. For if the water had not been gathered in such cavities, the dry land would not have had time to be revealed. But, O the care of God! For He also caused islands to accompany the cavities. For what reason? So that those sailing might rest there, whenever they abandon themselves to longer journeys.

^A Since this is the starting point, that divine man who was mentioned above discusses the soul as follows: "I esteem that the faculty of the soul is twofold, although it is one and the same; the one part is vital to the body, while the other is the contemplative faculty of beings, which we also call intellectual. ^B Now, the vital faculty, since it is joined with the body, the soul provides naturally, not by election, because of the temperament of these; but the contemplative faculty has its motion in election and counsel."

The most divine Maximus, explaining these things, says that that part of the soul which is purer is impassible and indivisible, and contemplates in an intellectual manner things which are intelligible, while the other part of the soul is passible and divisible; ^C this part, being divided among the senses, sympathizes with the body when it suffers, and rejoices with it when it finds pleasure. For the soul, as the prelate of Nyssa also said, is, as it were, joined and united through the bodily senses to the pleasant things of life. Through the eyes, it is delighted by the elegance of things, through the hearing it has an inclination toward pleasant sounds, and in the rest of the senses it is likewise disposed toward each one. ^D For this reason, John of Damascus also taught that the more irrational part of the soul is passible and has the power of desiring. These are also his words: "When the soul is affected in the sectioning of the body, it is not itself cut as the body is, yet nonetheless it sorrows with it and suffers with the one who suffers." Hence it comes about that there are pleasures common to the soul and the body, which are perceived from unions and the enjoyment of foods, as the aforementioned divine man said; but those pleasures which arise from the liberal arts belong specifically to the soul alone, since one would never find pleasures belonging to the body alone.

That there is in the soul a certain part that can be affected and suffer, through which it suffers together with the suffering body, and because of which it is troubled and grieves and experiences the rest of the passions—to which it became subject after the fall—is evident from the words which the Lord spoke: "Now my soul is troubled" (John XII, 27). For it was granted to His holy soul, just as to His body, to suffer at times the things that are proper to both, and He observed the measure of emptying in every respect, as the most divine Cyril said. For these passions—namely, pleasure, pain, and despondency—were not created along with the nature of men from the beginning, but, as the most divine Maximus says, they crept in later on account of the loss of perfection, and adhered to that part of our nature which is irrational. Consistently with these things, Basil the Great also discusses the matter, saying: "Consider the mutual affection that penetrates from the flesh to the soul; how the body receives life from the soul, and in turn the soul receives pains from the body."

And these men spoke thus; but Aristotle, relying on human reasonings, maintains that the ruling mind makes its dwelling in the heart itself, so that from there its elective power may easily be distributed throughout the entire body. Others, however, assert that the head has been built like a kind of acropolis.

^A because of the excessive power of dryness. Accordingly, the snake flees from rue, just as it also avoids winter, obviously on account of the excess of cold. So therefore all animals know instinctively what is life-saving and what is destructive. But what rational intelligence do they not conceal by their prognostications of changes in the air? Since, moreover, when winter approaches, the sheep feeds greedily, as if providing for itself against the future scarcity. Indeed, some of the diligent have observed that even the land hedgehog constructs double breathing-holes for its own den, and when the north wind is about to blow, it blocks the northern entrance, and when the south wind in turn changes, it moves to the one facing north. But one might also see a great excellence of the senses in animals. For if this were not so, a lamb among ten thousand sheep could not have identified the color and voice of its mother as it leapt from the stalls, and hurried toward her, passing by many other udders that were heavy [with milk]. For there is in them a sense sharper than our own understanding, by which the recognition of its own is present to each. The puppy does not yet have its teeth, and yet it defends itself by its mouth against the one who has harmed it. The calf does not yet have its horns, and yet it knows where its weapons will grow. Well, therefore, did Hippocrates say: "The natures of animals are untaught." And whose shame does the memory of the dog not stir up regarding those ungrateful toward their benefactors, seeing that many dogs are recorded to have died with their masters who were murdered in the wilderness? Indeed, some at the very heat of the occurrence even became guides for those seeking the murderers, and caused the criminals to be brought to justice. For a certain dog, having seen the murderer of its master in an inn, and from then on using barking against him, gave a disparaging suspicion to those around him, upon which he was brought to judgment and punished as a criminal. ^{B C D} Look attentively at the wisdom of God, how He adapted sharp teeth to carnivorous animals; for such was the need for them according to the type of their food. But to those that are only half-armed with teeth, He has prepared many and varied storehouses of food; for because at the first stage the food is not sufficiently broken down, He gave them the ability to regurgitate what has been swallowed, so that, having been softened by the cud-chewing, it might be suitable for the one being nourished. But animals also differ from one another in their weapons. For according to the character of their souls, as Aristotle also says, God grants both the formations of the body and its functions. For example, what do I mean? To the...

^B hare and the deer, being cowardly by nature of soul, He granted speed, so that they might escape the hands of the hunters. To the boar, being spirited and a warrior, He grants tusks; to the bull, horns; and to the lion, teeth and claws. And thus He armed all things suitably, while bringing man naked into life, He consoled him with the excellence of reason; for in reason there belongs to him the command over all things. By reason he brings down birds from the air, and draws fish from the waters. By reason he makes all things that are for the preservation of his life: houses, clothing, armor, and as many such things. For this reason God also gave him hands, so that thereby his proceeding reason might perform all things he wishes without hindrance. ^C Hence also the great Basil, in his interpretation of the prophet Isaiah, speaks thus concerning these things: "To the irrational animals, He granted an easy means of living; the governing power of all things granted them food that is automatic, native shelter, and the coverings of hair and feathers; but having brought man forth naked, He granted him reason in place of all things, through which the arts of procurement were established—building, weaving, and the rest—the soul supplying what was needed by the bodies through the excellence of reason." Indeed, it might have been that all things were born together with man along with his reason, by a greater bounty. But the grace of reason would not then have been shown. For if there were no necessity, by what means would his action have become manifest? ^D For this reason, in brute animals, perceptions are sharpened, since reason is lacking; for the Ruler of all things most wisely compensated for the lack of reason with the excellence of the senses. But observe even in these the providence of God. Why is the neck of the camel long? So that it may be equal to its feet and reach the herbage on which it lives. But those animals that do not get their life from the earth, and are not compelled to stoop toward it, as they are flesh-eaters, have a short neck buried in their shoulders. For this reason, the proboscis was gifted to the elephant, providing food and drink in place of a neck. And since his body is fashioned for the astonishment of beholders and is very large, for this very reason his feet are also without joints, supporting this weight like certain columns; for if his limbs were spongy and fluid, the slipping of the joints would be constant. But some also relate that the elephant lives for three hundred years. "Yet," he says, "I do not admire the elephant more for its size than the mouse, because it is a terror to the elephant; just as I also admire the most minute sting of the scorpion—how the craftsman hollowed it out like a pipe, so that through it the poison might be injected into the wounded." But they also say that the elephant does not drink until it has muddied the waters with its proboscis. For what reason? Because the elephant is frightened seeing its own shadow in the water. Wherefore they say the Indians keep watch for a moonless night, when they cross

Furthermore, we see that these intellectual natures are universally called powers, as they are free from bodily affections and therefore capable of fulfilling what is commanded them. "They are strong," says David, "in power, doing his word" (Ps. cii, 20). Moreover, in each of these sacred ranks, the superior orders possess the illuminations and powers of the lower ones, whereas the latter are not participants in the excellences of the former. It is necessary for you to know this also: that every appellation of those celestial minds holds in the Hebrew tongue an indication of each one's divine property, which John Chrysostom also points out in his third discourse on the Incomprehensible.

To this end, some are called Cherubim and others Seraphim; for such names declare their operations. And just as an angel receives this name because it announces to us the mysteries of divine things, and an archangel because it rules over the angels, so too these appellations indicate to us their wisdom and purity. Just as wings signify the loftiness of their nature (for Gabriel is not described as flying because that angel has feathers, but so that you may learn that he has come from the highest regions to human nature), so too is the matter arranged among the Cherubim and Seraphim; for their wings denote nothing else but the loftiness of their nature, just as eyes declare their perspicacity and perpetual celebration denotes their supreme vigilance.

In this way, their appellations have indications partly of wisdom and partly of purity. For what else does the name Cherubim mean than "multiplied knowledge"? What do the Seraphim mean other than "fiery mouths"? The term "Thrones" signifies nothing other than their excellence, separated from all lowly things, and their readiness for receiving divine ministrations. And this first rank is indeed established by the very author and prince of all natures, without any intermediary. The appellation of "Dominions" denotes a certain not-at-all servile and entirely noble elevation, which unceasingly desires to obey the truly princely lordship. The word "Powers" signifies a certain manly effectiveness, firm in all divine actions; "Authorities" signifies an orderly and unconfused arrangement in divine duties. This middle description of those celestial minds is perfected and illuminated by the first order, and it in turn communicates its illuminations to the one that follows. In this, the voice of the "Principalities" indicates that they themselves are like God and hold a principality, and that they conform themselves to that primary principality as far as they are able; that of the "Archangels" signifies that they follow the extremes, as they communicate both with the principalities and with the angels—with the principalities, because they have turned themselves toward that supernatural principality, and with the angels, because they make visible the thearchic illuminations through the first powers.

^A the water with this animal. And for this reason they stir up the waters with their trunks as they drink. There is also this other thing worthy of wonder in elephants. Whenever they want to cross the Indian river, they do not make the passage simply and as it happens, but the smallest of all is the first to begin the crossing, then another larger than it, then another still greater than both of them. And in sequence, using such order, they cross the river without hindrance. For if the larger ones were to begin the journey, perhaps by the weight of their feet they would create pits in the very mud of the riverbed, ^B and would no longer allow those possessing the smallest bodies to proceed; nay rather, they would force such animals to be suffocated in the mire of the river. And that the elephant does not approach into pairing in any other way, as those who are expert in such matters say, unless it tastes the mandrake (for there is no inclination to copulation before this, where the female, having taken the mandrake and eaten of it, gives to the male, and thus they come to intercourse), is clearly referred to the first-created; for they, too, before the tasting of the plant, had a life equal to the angels, but after the tasting of the tree and the introduction of disobedience, ^C *Adam knew Eve his wife and she brought forth Cain*. But what need is there even to speak of the ant-lion? For it is written in Job, *The ant-lion has perished for having no food*. The ant-lion is a certain animal begotten from an ant and a lion, but it soon meets its end because it does not find food appropriate to it; for as a lion it seeks meat, but as an ant it seeks grain, and for this reason it easily perishes. These things are all referred to the devil himself, who begins from small things but arrives at great ones. Concerning whom also one of the Fathers said: ^D *The devil knows how to belittle the smallness of sins; for otherwise he could not bring you to a greater evil.* Whence he also perishes, and dies, so to speak, like the ant-lion, finding neither food nor rest from us.

Now the elephant, if it falls, is unable to rise because it does not have joints in its feet. Moreover, these creatures, even though they bear the largest bodies, are uniparous. For this very reason they ought properly to be multiparous—I speak of the elephant, the horse, and the camel; but since the nourishment is consumed for the growth of the body, they cannot feed a multitude of embryos. And concerning these, let this suffice. But they say that hares bring forth some of their offspring, while others they have brought forth, and others still incomplete are carried in the womb. The reason is that the nature of hares is most fruitful. For see that hare rennet placed upon a barren woman quickly makes her pregnant, and grants to a sterile woman a child to nurse. Thus conception is not fixed in hares, but while the offspring are still being carried, a super-conception occurs in them. Therefore, some that have been brought forth

^A The title of angel also represents their manifestative ministry. The word thus showed that the first orders receive illuminations immediately from God, while the second [receive them] from the first, and so on for the others, that is to say, the third from the second.

That there is a certain difference among the celestial powers, and that they possess this according to their station, order, and knowledge, the most divine Cyril also pointed out in his *Thesaurus*, having said as follows: "Knowledge is measured out to every rational being, so that one is to believe that there is one measure in angels, a greater one in archangels, and one that surmounts even these in the superior powers." ^B But also John Damascene says thus concerning these things: "The superior powers differ from one another in illumination and in station—whether they hold their station in relation to the illumination, or they participate in the illumination according to their station—and they illuminate one another on account of the excellence of order or nature." It is clear, as has also been said above, that those who are superior communicate both illumination and knowledge to those who are beneath them.

In addition to what has been said, he also says this: that the celestial powers also guard parts of the earth and preside over nations and places, just as they were ordained by the Creator. That these things are so, the most holy among the patriarchs, Germanus, shows this more clearly. For in his discourse on the Dormition of the Mother of God, he says these things concerning this matter: ^C "As soon as the generations of men were established, angels were ordered to be the guardians of their lives. For he set," he says, "the boundaries of the nations according to the number of the angels of God; and the angel of the Lord shall encamp round about them that fear him." But when men turned aside to idolatry, the angels also withdrew from them. But at the time when the all-immaculate one brought forth, those things in heaven were united with those on earth, and a harmonious life became [shared] by angels and men, and one doxology." ^D Something of this kind the gold-tongued John also details concerning the angels. For he says that the prophet Daniel calls the angels a great thing, and that by the command of God the whole creation was distributed [among them], and that they preside over [different] nations, and that one of these looks after the Persians, while the archangel Michael guards the people of the circumcision. And [he says] that both [powers] stood in contention with one another, not according to the passion of anger, but according to a certain divine and ineffable reason, while the one compelled the Jews to serve the Persians, as if they were despisers of God, while the other pulled them back toward freedom and said: "Cease, guardians of the Persians; for God...

as it is said, and the hare, because it is full of excremental humors—for hirsuteness is a sign of an abundance of such humors. Hence this animal also superfoetates. Because of this, men who are hirsute are more aphrodisiacal and more prolific in seed than those who are smooth. So much for these matters. But Aelian relates something paradoxical and very extraordinary concerning the hare: for the fetus begotten of it carries another fetus inside it. Similarly, they say that both the hare and the hyena become hermaphroditic. But the hare is also cowardly. For what reason? Because it has a very large heart, just as the deer, mouse, hyena, donkey, panther, weasel, and simply all things that are manifestly cowardly or malicious out of fear. For since their hearts are very large, the heat is diffused and not concentrated; on which account it happens that they are cowardly. Those, however, which have a small heart have their innate heat of necessity concentrated; on which account such creatures are quick to fight.

Know also this, that gestation in elephants lasts two years. For what reason? Because larger fetuses require more time for perfection; for some are ten months, others a year, as in the horse. According to this, therefore, the birthing of elephants is long-lived. For their gestation is two years due to the excess of size, as Aristotle says.

The deer, having cast off its horns, hides itself, being ashamed, as it were, at their nakedness. But when they come to growth, it speaks boldly again as it did before. So also the righteous man, having turned aside in any way from his duty and having been stripped of his virtues, hides from God, just as Adam once suffered in paradise when he saw himself naked due to the transgression. But when, having struggled, he reforms and sees that the virtues have increased, he then returns to God and manifests himself as a participant in his former boldness. And wishing to declare this, David said: "Then shall I not be ashamed, when I have looked upon all thy commandments." And these people say so. But others say that the deer do not flee from their accustomed haunts ashamed at the loss of their horns, but rather taking thought for themselves. For there is perception even in irrational animals, according to which they have taken hold of the discernment of their own safety. The cuttlefish knows the artifice of mist, and it has often caused the invisibility of its prey to its hunters. Those with curved claws know the power that comes through their claws. The hare knows through its running and the swiftness of its feet how to avert the plots of hunters. The deer knows that when its horns have been cut away, its nature is weaker—

^A manner, will be produced from man alone, but from the union of both and the law of marriage. God therefore casts a deep sleep upon Adam, and taking one of his ribs, constructs Eve. For it was necessary that Eve should not also come forth from the earth, but from the essence of Adam, so that from this a bond of love might be implanted in the spouses. He casts a deep sleep, that is, He implants a stupor in Adam, so that he might not perceive pain in the removal of the rib, as the Golden-mouthed says, and consequently feel hostilely disposed toward his spouse. He removes, then, one of his ribs, and constructs the woman, and filled in flesh in its place. "Why, then, did He fill it in?" So that, after passing out of sleep, he might not, by perceiving what was missing, feel what had happened; for if he had been unaware at the time of the removal, he would yet have been bound to perceive what had happened afterwards, for which reason He filled the lack of the rib with flesh. ^B

And God said, "Increase and multiply, and fill the earth." We must pay attention to the great Basil here as well. For he says that increase is twofold: one is of the body, and the other of the soul; but the increase of the body is the restoration from small to the proper size, while the increase of the soul is achieved additionally through learning. But John, the golden-mouthed, also says this about the soul, that once it has received existence from God, it does not further tend toward increase in the way that the body does; for how could this be possible for it, being as it is without quantity or shape, as an image of God? Therefore, the rational soul was fashioned perfect from the beginning, even if it seems to grow little by little along with the body. And this is clear from what he of Nyssa says: "The form of the soul ^C is seen in proportion to the underlying instrument. For the association with the passionate and animal generation did not make the divine image shine forth in the creaturely form straight away, but it leads man to perfection by a certain way and sequence, not because a different soul comes into being for the infant and a different one for the mature, but because the same one shows imperfection in the former, while in the latter it shows perfection." Therefore, the soul is indeed perfect even in infancy, but it is unable to display the whole of its activity. For just as an excellent musician plays some thin and discordant melody on small flutes, but when he finds them wide, he then displays his whole art, so also the soul, as Gregory the Theologian relates in his measured verses; for according to the disposition of the instrument, so does it show its activity. ^D

and that it cannot defend itself against those doing it harm; therefore, it hides itself like an unarmed soldier who dares not face the enemy. ^A However, the deer alone sheds its horns for the sake of utility, as Aristotle says; for it relieves itself of a heavy burden out of necessity, because their horns are not entirely solid. The horns of other animals are hollow up to a certain point, while their tips are solid, because they serve to catch blows in order to defend against those who would hurt them; therefore, it hides itself. ^B Know also this: that the creators of that scent which we call musk are the deer that dwell in India. For this much-fabled perfume is nothing other than the blood of the deer, which has formed in the navel; however, towards the end of spring it is cast off like some excrement. When gathered, no part of it has any fragrant scent; but when it has been stored for some time and carried over to another continent, only then does it exhale that fragrant spirit. It is said that the deer, being charmed by the sound of pipes and rattles, does not see the archer standing nearby and is shot. So we, too, being charmed as if by the pipes of this world's pleasures, nowhere see the enemy using invisible arrows against us. Also, they say that the deer constantly trains its young to run. God surely ordained this to put to shame parents who are lazier. But consider, even here, God’s providence. ^C Since this animal—the deer, obviously—is timid and therefore always resorts to flight, God fashioned it so as to safely hold and keep its offspring in the womb. And this is evident in those things which are contained in the books of the blessed Job. At that time, when he wanted to contend with God, God said among other things: “Did you observe the birthings of the deer, or have you numbered the months of their pregnancies?” It is indeed a wonder how a deer, running and leaping so much, does not miscarry. ^D Besides the things already mentioned, this is also told about the deer: that with the breath of its nostrils it draws snakes from their lair and devours them, and for fear of the poison it eats the crab, and is not harmed by it. The beaver, when it is chased by hunters for the sake of its genital organs, and perceives that it is being caught, cuts them off and throws them to the hunter. But if, after this, it is chased by another hunter, it throws itself on its back; the hunter, noticing from this that it lacks the necessary members, lets it go. Also, if you ask this, beloved, why is it that in quadrupeds and other animals the offspring generally bear a resemblance to their parents, while in humans this is not so much the case? Because man’s mind is affected in many ways even during the act of sexual union, and because of this—

^A "Increase, and multiply, and replenish the earth," not, however, by habitation, but by your authority, as the great Basil says. For surely humans are not under a necessity to fill also that which is scorched and untilled, and that which is frozen and impassable; but God made us masters to replenish it. And we replenish it by our reason. For when we see how much the measure of the scorched and uninhabited [region] is, when we see how much the northern climate is, which on account of the excessive cold is untilled and useless, we have not replenished the earth, but choosing the useful part, we have left aside that which is useless for the habitation of humans.

^B "And God said: Behold, I have given you every tree which has fruit in itself. To you it shall be for food, and to all the beasts of the earth." Observe, then: for God made man the ruler of the fish and of the rest, but He did not grant him the enjoyment of them. So the first law granted [only] the enjoyment of fruits. For we were still considered worthy to be in Paradise: fruit, therefore, and herbs and grass were for our food, and for the birds of the air and all the beasts of the earth. For even if now the lion and the leopard delight in blood, nevertheless, these too, being subject to the law of nature, were nourished by fruits. But when God saw man living dissolutely, He granted him the enjoyment of all things by a second law after the flood, saying, "All these, as the herbs of the grass, you shall eat." By this permission, then, the rest of the animals also received license to eat [of all things]. From that time forward, therefore, the lion is bloodthirsty, and from that time vultures wait for carrion. For surely vultures did not scan the earth alongside the birth of animals, so that they might be nourished thence; but all these wandered about the meadows. And even now we see dogs often grazing on grass for the sake of remedy, not because the food is naturally theirs, but because, by a certain untaught instruction of nature, irrational animals come to what is useful. Consider that the carnivorous animals were like this ^C at that time, devising grass for themselves for food, and not plotting against one another. The enjoyment, therefore, was granted after the flood, as has been said. Yet even now, those who wish to lead their lives in imitation of the life in Paradise, fleeing this over-abundant enjoyment of foods, and leading themselves toward that manner of life as much as is possible, draw upon fruits and seeds and the produce of trees for their sustenance; and we turn away from that which is beyond this as unnecessary. For they are not detestable on account of the Creator, nor are they to be chosen on account of the comfort of the flesh.

On the consumption of meat.

I know, beloved, that you have also been perplexed ^D on this point.

125 just as the father and mother are disposed, so too do the offspring vary. Other animals, however, insofar as they think of nothing else during the time of union, to that extent they produce offspring that are entirely similar. But do not be surprised if among humans the offspring bear both likenesses and unlikenesses to their parents. For instance, whichever of the seeds becomes more dominant in the mixing and blending, the form of the one being fashioned bears the likeness to that. But if the seeds, when mixed, have an equal bearing toward one another, then the one produced has an equal likeness to both the female and the male; that is to say, those born are born resembling both father and mother. Frequently, even if the woman forms an image in her mind during sexual union—of this one or that one—the one being conceived is modeled after what was imagined. This indeed conceals an unspeakable and marvelous explanation. And hear what Dioscorides says regarding a certain Stratonicus, a leader from Sicily. He and his spouse, although ugly, were eager to be the parents of beautiful children, and they devised this: they placed images—that is, statues—before them, and so, while they were united, the infant was fashioned for them according to the likeness of the statues. This can also be seen in the case of dogs; for when their copulation takes place, to whatever the female directs her gaze, the likeness of the offspring tends toward that. But we find the most wise Galen agreeing with this point, speaking thus literally: “An ancient account also informed me that a certain ruler, who was ugly, desiring to beget a beautiful child, had a beautiful child painted on a flat wooden panel, and told his wife to look at that form of the painting while she was being embraced. She, looking intently, and, if one may say so, bringing her whole mind to bear upon that spot, brought forth a child that was not like the father but like the painted image in its appearance.” If you wish to learn about the nature of serpents, Nicander will teach you more than others. For immediately in his poems he records these things concerning vipers. The female viper receives the head of the male into her mouth, and having intercourse in this way, she kills him. Consequently, to avenge the father, it seems, the offspring kill the mother; for at the time of birth they tear through the mother's womb and thus come forth. For this reason, the Precursor of the Lord called the Jews a “brood of vipers,” 126 as they were the ones who had killed their prophets and fathers. But if this is the case with serpents, how should one understand the evangelical saying which states: “Be wise as serpents, and innocent as doves”? The serpent is indeed wicked and truly most evil, but it also possesses certain things into which we are commanded to look and to imitate them; for just as the bee, when it alights upon a deadly plant, picks out what is useful from it, while another leaves the worst part there—

^A I would have you turn your mind to this. When a serpent is struck, it exposes its whole body to the blows, but covers only its head, as if it knew that its life is contained therein. So too ought we act in times of persecution: letting everything else go, provided we keep and preserve our head, which is Christ and our very faith. The same serpent, when it has grown old and begun to suffer from dimness of sight, first lives temperately and remains fasting for a time; then, passing through a certain narrow passage into the earth, and in an unusual manner shedding its entire skin, it departs young once again. Thus we, too, having grown old through sins, must walk the narrow and constricted path, so that by this means we may be renewed and return to our former state and condition. And if it should ever be thirsty and about to touch water in a well, it first vomits its venom, and then approaches the fountain. Just so must we, when we are about to approach that divine cup—and we heal the sins that burn us—first cast away all depravity, and then bring ourselves to the holy mysteries. Wherefore, it was well said by the Lord concerning these things: “Be ye wise as serpents.” And of these matters, let this suffice. ^B You must also know, however, that there are various and diverse kinds of serpents. For some kill most rapidly, others more slowly. Likewise, some bring destruction by a bite, others in some other way. That serpent which they call the basilisk, whom the wise Galen also mentions in his discourse to Piso on the theriaca, kills by his mere gaze the one who has looked upon him. Hence it is that the Holy Scriptures teach that the envious eye is no different from such a serpent. For just as there flows from this beast a certain deadly discharge capable of destroying a man immediately, so too does something similar issue from the eyes of the envious. And it is wonderful, above all, that they sometimes bring destruction upon their own kin. Yet let this seem strange to no one: for they do that for which they were fashioned by nature, not what they desire. For if Eutelidas, as is found in Plutarch, bewitched his own eyes when he saw them in the water, having been amazed at the beauty of his own form, much more will the envious eye bring destruction to another, as if casting a certain poisonous dart into the bodies of those it beholds. And these things have been taught both by experience and by times past. For eyes act in part and suffer in part, sometimes emitting [something], sometimes receiving it, just as we see happens in the case of lovers and the beloved. The great Basil, in explaining the title of the thirty-third Psalm, says: “Indeed, I reject that which is said, that the eyes ejaculate a certain poisonous dart, as something vulgar and devised by old women in the women’s quarters. But I say that the evil spirits, who burn with hatred of the good, if they find wills consonant and addicted to themselves, abuse them in every way according to their own desire and will. Thus it comes about that they use even the eyes of the envious for the service of their will.” ^{C D} The basilisk, then, of whom we are now speaking, harms the ears not only by this manner, but also by his hissing.

^A makes this discourse clearer in his discourse on the Resurrection, where he says: “Such as it was from the beginning, such has the body which fell been raised from the dead, having cast off everything which it had previously reached—that is, the things that occurred to it through sin.” Pay attention, then. For if it has been raised such as it was from the beginning, and that body which is raised is acknowledged to have been raised better than death and corruption, and the all-great Paul confirms the discourse, saying: “This corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality” (I Cor. xv, 53), it is entirely clear that that body, I mean the one first fashioned by God, was truly immortal and incorruptible, as we have already said many times. ^B The divine Gregory of Nyssa demonstrates this very thing precisely when he is explaining the scriptural passage from Ecclesiastes, which is set forth in these words: “What is that which has been? The same as that which shall be. And what is that which has been made? The same as that which shall be made.” For he says that man, fashioned by the hand of God, was not that which he now is because of sin—namely, subject to change and corruption—but what he shall be later—that is to say, immutable and incorruptible. If, therefore, God created man for incorruption, according to the image of His eternity, as Solomon says; if He showed His own favor by bestowing upon him an intellectual soul so that he might even be immortal throughout time, as the golden-tongued one says; if God granted to man the enjoyment of eternal life from the beginning, as the great Basil says; if the first creation of Adam was incorrupt according to the divine Anastasius of Sinai; if God gave to man from the beginning ^C the dignity of being immortal and deathless, as the divine Andrew is found saying; if God, having honored man with the power of self-direction and immortality, appointed him king of all earthly things, as the blessed Barlaam says, how then shall we say that he was brought forth by God as both mortal and immortal? This is inadmissible, as I think, and very much so. And how, pray tell, is it not inadmissible, when the great Gregory, in his theology, does not allow us to imagine such things about the first man? For by saying that he was from the beginning devoid of every covering and screen, he clearly showed that the man first formed by God was clothed in a garment of immortality. But it is not allowed to contradict these things. For either that body was subject to natural passions and was admittedly corruptible, or it was superior to all passions, as the discourse has already distinguished. And there is no need to doubt concerning its incorruption, for it is manifest that, not being subject to any corruption, it was truly incorruptible. ^D Thus, then, beloved, the body of our Lord Jesus Christ is also acknowledged to have been corruptible before the passion, since it was subject to natural passions, and incorruptible again after the passion and the resurrection, regarding the immortality of the first man, Adam, which those who wander far from the truth, as many theologians and interpreters of Holy Scripture have set forth, whom you may consult, have erred in.

313 Ephon’s son completely destroyed the three sons of Enac, namely Susem, Tholmeus, and Schimas; these were giants with bodies of extraordinary stature, for which reason they are called the sons of Enac in the Holy Scriptures.

It ought to be known that the first law among the Hebrews is written in Exodus as follows: “Thou shalt have no other gods before me. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, nor any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath.” There is no tautology here between the “graven image” (idolum) and the “likeness” (similitudo), for the likeness is of something—whether a terrestrial animal, a marine one, or a winged one. But the idol, according to Origen’s interpretation, is a construct of the mind that has no substantial existence, such as the cynocephalus honored by the Egyptians or the hippocentaur among the Greeks. Furthermore, you should know that the first law among the Hebrews was written in the book that concerns their exodus from Egypt; and these are the first words of the law: “Thou shalt have no other gods before me. Thou shalt not make to thyself a sculpture, nor an image of anything whatsoever that exists either above in heaven or below on earth.” There is no inept repetition of the same thing here, for an idol and an image do not signify the same thing; for an image is of either a land animal, or a sea animal, or a flying one, whereas an idol, according to the opinion and explanation of Origen, exists as an invention of the mind, just as that cynocephalus, which was held in religious veneration by the Egyptians, was a mental construct, or as the Hippocentaur of the Greeks.

314 After Jesus, the son of Nave, the people were governed by judges. The first of these was Judas who overcame Adonibezec and maimed his hands and feet, for he was a king of foreign nations. For the Canaanites, taking heart after the death of Jesus to overcome the Judeans, entrusted the leadership to Adonibezec and went out against them. But they were disappointed in their goal; for not a few of them were slain, and Adonibezec was captured; and having his hands and feet maimed, he said: “Seventy kings, with the extremities of their hands and feet cut off, gathered the scraps under my table. As I have done, so has God repaid me.”

But also Barach, together with the prophetess Debbora, judged Israel for forty years. Debbora was a prophetess. She kept the Judeans—who wished to retreat because of the multitude of the Canaanites who had mobilized against them—and persuaded them to engage the enemy; hence they killed many of them. For a heavy winter having occurred harmed the Canaanites greatly, but the Judeans not at all. Then also Sisaras, seeing the rout that had occurred, leaped from his chariot and fled to a certain woman named Jael, so that he might be saved by her. And to this Sisaras, asking for a drink, she gave milk that was already starting to spoil. And having drunk more than the measure, he fell into a deep sleep. Then indeed Jael slew him by driving a peg through his temples. And thus victory was theirs according to the prophecy of Debbora. Thus the Scripture rightly called Susem, Tholmeus, and Schimas the sons of Enac, giants.

For God ^A fashioned man for incorruption, established him as lord of all earthly things, and granted him immortality throughout, as has been set forth above; and so it was his until the ages, for God’s gifts are irrevocable. But because He saw him sliding toward sin, and thereby falling from that exalted and angelic manner of life, for this reason He permits death to take place against him, for it was no longer advantageous that immortality should be his from that time on. For had such a thing not occurred, had that concession not been given from above for the sake of philanthropy, so that evil might not be immortal, death would not have approached that first Adam who was created for incorruption in the image of God’s eternity; nor would that body, which was superior to corruption and death, have become subject to them. But if these things are so, how shall we say that he was brought into existence by God as both immortal and mortal? For even if he became subject to death by failing to keep the commandment given to him, we shall nevertheless find that this is the final reach of the dispensation, as has already been stated, if we choose to attend to the sequence of Holy Scripture. For not when God was bringing man forth, as we were saying above, did He then speak to him, saying: "On the day you eat of the plant, you will surely die," but rather long after his formation. ^B For after He had established him as king, after He had brought the animals to him, after the conclusion had been reached concerning him in the divine counsel, only then did such a divine voice come to him, and then, truly, then did death find a place against him. And why these things, and for what cause? Lest, had he remained immortal after the transgression, evil should also of necessity remain immortal with him.

That man was destined to remain immortal after the sin, had not a divine dispensation occurred so that we should not also suffer immortal things like the fallen angels, the divine Gregory of Nyssa allows those without knowledge to understand for now. "For since," he says, "the first men fell into forbidden things and were stripped of that blessedness, He economically clothed the nature created for immortality with skin tunics—that is, the mortality derived from animals—lest the evil ^C should be immortal." And this divine man said "economically" well; for God, being concerned for us, that we might not sin immortally and that we might not remain forever in this painful and wretched life, as the golden-tongued one also says, yields to death to make its way against the immortal. And in this way, the immortal becomes mortal, and the incorruptible likewise becomes corruptible. And let the great Basil further persuade us, speaking thus about this: ^D

Certain men were cutting wheat when they were seized by thirst. Hence they ran to a vessel full of wine, hoping to find there an end to their thirst. But they were disappointed in their purpose; for a viper suddenly leapt out from it and checked their impulse. What followed from this? They take the wine and give it to a certain man afflicted with disease, so that he might thereby be more quickly freed from his state and not lead a life so painful. The man receives the wine offered, drinks it with pleasure, and immediately finds deliverance from his malady. From that time on, then, the flesh of the viper is included in the medicine. But they also call such a thing "theriac" on account of the flesh of the wild beasts, and because it is very suitable for bites from serpents. And a certain Andromachus became the author of such an invention, as Galen says, who was contemporary with Nero.

Furthermore, in addition to the things mentioned, know that serpents coil themselves up to mate, just as hedgehogs are seen standing upright on account of their spines. If you also wish to know the reason why serpents go down into the earth in winter and seek out places above in the summer, it is clear that this is the cause. ^A The serpent is cold, dry, nervous, and possesses little blood, on account of which it always necessarily seeks warm places. And since in winter the heat is accustomed to travel downward, and in summer it abounds from above, for this reason the serpent changes its abodes according to the condition of the air. For see that even well-water is cold in summer and warm in winter. At that time, as the cold prevails from above, the heat travels to the depths, whence the water happens to be warm in winter. For nature did not ordain that cold and heat should remain together in the same place and at the same time.

^B But I wish for you to know this also, in addition to the rest: Holy Scripture is accustomed to call the largest serpents "dragons," especially when it speaks of the rod of Moses, which was indeed changed into a serpent first, and then after that into a dragon, and from there swallowed the rods of the magicians of Pharaoh, which had themselves supposedly been changed into serpents. But also the prophet David, intimating the whale kind, speaks thus: "This dragon which you have formed to play in it" (Ps. CIII, 26). But we have nowhere found recorded, even until today, such a kind of dragon as the multitude report. For the lightning fire from above does not break down to burn such ^C dragons. ^D The dragon kind is dry by nature and fiery in essence; for fire even flashes from their eyes. And the poison which they vomit out is smoky, and it dissolves the bodies which it touches. Hence the dragon is combustible on account of the dryness it possesses, and is prone to inflammation. Therefore, it fears the thunderbolt, and at times leaping forth, it is carried through the air, and seeks out places

^A [the wrong,] unless indeed the man were destined to live on after the deception in immortality, just as he was before? It is therefore permitted to the immortal, as has been said before, to fall into death, so that evil might not be immortal; which even the Theologian called a gain. But do not be troubled by this. For if Adam was mortal even before the transgression, and mortal also after the transgression, when then did he receive the penalty of death? And when did he put on the coats of skin? It is manifest, therefore, that he, speaking of the common nature of men, said that man was ephemeral in body but immortal in soul. For in this sense he also said that he suffers for the sake of reminder and instruction; for how would that body have been subject to passions, which did not need a covering and was thus known to be impassible? To argue, therefore, any further is not reasonable; for if Adam was ephemeral from the beginning, if he existed mortal before the sin, the great Paul would not have said, "The wages of sin is death." ^B By this he showed that before the sin man was immortal. And if this is true, then such a one was also superior to all bodily necessities. From which it follows, then, that man did not taste of sensible food from the beginning. For though God allowed Adam to eat of all the trees in the garden, yet it does not follow that food there was sensible and transient. And this, as the discourse proceeds, will show you more clearly. For either, as the great Athanasius says to Antiochus, the plants in paradise are incorruptible, and how were they cut by teeth? How were they eaten? For that which is incorruptible is not by nature susceptible of being cut or consumed. Or they are subject to corruption, as some suspect, and how did Adam use them for nourishment? Let them give an answer to these things. For either the body he then possessed was perspirable and subject to corruption and flow, and was of necessity hungry, or it remained unperspirable, being free from flux and incorruptible—and what then compelled it to partake of sensible food? But they would not have anything to say, since the one after the image of God was rather superior to bodily necessities, as he of the golden tongue says; ^C for hunger and thirst and toil and sleep and pain and corruption, as indeed has been said before, entered into human life after the transgression. Look, therefore, with understanding, and do not thoughtlessly open your ears to those who are found here and there and who relate other things, but turn away from [the] Rom. vi, 23.

on water or flees to pools; for it knows that because of the dryness inherent in it, even from a distance it is consumed by the fire of the lightning. Wherever, then, the dragon happens to go, hissing and passing through, when it is driven by the fire, then the neighboring parts are also consumed. For often, even without a dragon, certain indistinct sounds are heard, when the fire breaks from above and falls upon such and such bodies. And whoever among those who have encountered such conflagrations say that they have seen a pig grunting, or a flock of goats bleating, or an ox lowing, they are lying to themselves and to their hearers; for they have seen nothing, but fear has fashioned for them such appearances. If, however, perhaps a malicious demon, having donned the body of the dragon, leads the beast into those parts—driven as if by fire—upon which it has been accustomed from the beginning to cast an evil eye, not even this account is to be rejected. For such a kind of being was an ancient dwelling-place for him, when he even made us exiles from Paradise itself through it, whence it is no new thing if he desires out of envy to push us from this earth as well. And about these things, so it is.

If, however, you seek the reason why cats and bats see accurately only by night, this is it: They possess a visual spirit that is altogether very fine. Therefore, at night, when it is moderately thickened by the absence of the sun, it becomes suitable for the perception of visible things; for during the day it is dissipated and scattered because it is very fine. This is also to be seen in other creatures, and in the lions themselves. Hence it is that lions flee the sun’s brightness and lie hidden all day long against their will; for if this were not so, perhaps they would wander about freely by day and inflict no small harm on those encountering them. ^A Know also this, that a lion, when pursued, draws in its tracks. Thus did the Lord, descending to earth, completely contract the time of His advent because of the devil who had long been watching for virgins. The lion’s cub is born dead, but it is brought to life by the breathing of its father. So also did God act first regarding Adam, and later regarding His own Son, who was dead for our sake. Wherefore also Jacob said: «He lay down and slept as a lion, and as a lion’s whelp; who shall rouse him?» (Gen. XLIX, 9). And if the same is called both lion and whelp, it is no novel thing; for Christ was both King and the Son of a King. The wolf fears the plant called squill. The fox, knowing this, sleeps near such a plant if by chance it happens to be staying outside its den, so that it may not be eaten by wolves. ^B If the fox does this, then much more ought we—[here the text shifts to the discourse on Incarnation]

^A thus also the most divine Gregory of Nyssa reads these words: "We are persuaded that that tree forbidden for food was neither a fig tree, as some say, nor any other fruit-bearing tree. For although the God-seeing Moses seems to speak here of sensible food, yet I, he says, when I hear the holy Scriptures, acknowledge not only a corporeal food, but I know there is also another nutriment, the enjoyment of which pertains only to the soul." For Wisdom exhorts those who are hungry in these words: ^B "Eat my bread, and drink the wine which I have mixed for you." But also the Lord, foreshadowing the salvation of the Samaritans, said, "I have food to eat that you do not know," and elsewhere: "Let him who thirsts come to me and drink." Therefore, it is fitting to conceive of a certain fruit of the planting in Eden (for Eden is interpreted as 'delight') and not to doubt that man was nourished by this; and one should by no means think of this transitory and fleeting food during the life in Paradise. Thus, then, the most divine Anastasius also desires that that food be intellectual, not sensible and carnal. For if the divine utterances indicated such food, the first men, having tasted of it, would have died carnally as well. But because they sinned by the reason of the mind, they immediately receive the death of the soul. ^C Thus, then, the theologian Gregory also said that that plant, namely the tree of knowledge, was a contemplation, that is to say, a certain more perfect knowledge, to which it is not safe for those who are more greedy in their desire to ascend. Take heed, therefore. For it has been demonstrated from many sources that Adam in Paradise was not in need of sensible food; for having been brought forth by God as immortal, he was in need of nothing. And what need is there to say many things? If man is to live in the resurrection according to the likeness of the angels (for He says, "All shall be as the angels of God"), and the grace of the resurrection is nothing else, according to the divine Fathers, than the restoration of those who have fallen to their ancient state, it is entirely evident that before the transgression Adam had a life equal to angels, ^D not using either food or drink, as has been said, because no such thing is seen to exist even among the angels themselves. Do not, therefore, suppose that man in Paradise was filled with sensible food, since he had no need of it there on account of the impassibility that belonged to him at that time. But it was not proper to doubt these things. For since these natural passions—I mean hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, pain, grief, and the rest—entered into human life after the transgression, as the discourse has already made known, it is entirely evident that before the sin man did not have that which would compel him to partake of sensible food. And what need is there to speak at length? If man were in need of nourishment from the beginning, as some have assumed, he would also necessarily have been hungry, and shivering, and sleeping. But if he were such as that, it is entirely evident that he was mortal from the beginning and corruptible; for it is impossible for him who is incorruptible to remain so, as John of Damascus says, if he possesses...

these things? Prayer and fasting; for "this kind," he says, "is not cast out except by prayer and fasting." [Matt. XVII, 20.]

The camelopard is reported to be seen in Libya. The cause of such a mixing is the drought of that region; for the various animals collected there are few in number because of the waters, and thence, as they mingle with one another, multiform beasts are born. And know, my beloved son, that such composite animals, just as also mules, are not fit for conception and birth. Why is this? Because, consisting of different kinds, they have suffered a corruption of their power to beget. And it is reasonable; for neither did the earth at the beginning of things bring these forth, as it did the other animals (for the coition of donkeys and horses was thought of later by human artifice), nor did they hear that divine voice which said to the others, "Increase and multiply." [Gen. I, 22.] Hence, they have a ruined power of procreation.

The unicorn is a very wild animal, captured neither by hunters nor in any other way. However, such a beast, fierce as it is, approaches a virgin woman, who is clothed in splendid garments and adorned with various finery, and it rests at her knees. This can be seen in that invisible and incomprehensible divinity and in the true and only Virgin; for if this most pure temple had not been found, God would not have been seen on earth nor would He have conversed with men.

The ant, climbing upon the ear of grain, ^B smells it, and if it finds barley, it flees from it and goes to the ear of wheat. If the ant does this, how much more ought we to avoid doctrine that is alienated from the truth, and come to the wheat, that is, the most upright doctrine. For the enmity which the wolf has toward the sheep can be seen from this: for if its gut-string is found in a lyre, the rest of the strings made from sheep-gut are silent and emit no sound. This is also to be seen in timbrels. Why, then, was this strange and unusual thing permitted at the beginning of things? That from this it might be more clearly seen what enmity that intellectual wolf possesses against the flock of Christ.

Aelian says that the chameleon appears in various forms, as if it were deceiving the eyes of those looking at it, in imitation of Satan, who transforms himself into an angel of light. But Aristotle says that the chameleon is the most lean among animals that lay eggs and are terrestrial, because it has very little blood. This is also the cause of the soul's character in this animal; for it becomes multiform because of fear; for fear arises from a lack of heat.

^A The male pig has tusks, as it is sharper for striking, while the female does not have them, and so it bites in defense. So too with deer: the male bears antlers, but the female does not. Moreover, those that are castrated do not have tusks, because their nature changes toward the feminine; for the females of these are deprived of them. Know also this, that wild pigs, which use simple nourishment, give birth once a year, while tame ones give birth twice because of their rich diet. When they are fattened, they lose their hair and bristles; for as they become fat, they become fleshy—or rather, such are those that digest well—and those that digest well lack waste matter, and the hair comes from the waste matter. ^B The reason why the pig and the horse carry foam at the mouth is this: heat and motion are accustomed to bleach liquids. And see the sea: it is whitened when moved by the winds. Look at pots placed over a fire. Look at the humidity in the air: in winter it is whitened when moved by the winds, and once whitened, it freezes due to the cold at that time, and thus snow is brought down; for snow is nothing else but semi-frozen water. So then, in the pig and the horse, humors, thinned into bubbles by heat and motion, are transformed into foam. ^C But if you also wish to know the reason why dogs alone go mad during the summer, here it is clearly set before you. Dogs go mad because of the accumulation of a dry temperament. They are dry by nature, and more so during heat waves. Therefore, the humors within them, heating up and drying out, become inflamed, and thence, because of excessive dryness, they go mad, just like those suffering from frenzy. Whence also their saliva becomes poisonous and drier. That they are inflamed is clear from their frequent panting, from having fiery eyes, and an open mouth for the cooling of the air. Not all dogs go mad, but as many of them as are drier. Some also say that the star, the Dog, contributes to this madness by some sort of emanation. Having gone mad, as Paul the Sinopian says, they turn away from both food and drink, and they let out copious and foamy saliva, and they are altogether voiceless, and moreover senseless, so that they do not even recognize their own masters. They rush upon everyone without barking and bite, and when they bite, they do not cause anything troublesome immediately, except for the pain from the wound. ^D Later, however, they produce the affliction called hydrophobia; for those bitten by rabid dogs flee from water, both when they see it and when it is brought to them. Some of them also, as... Sinopensis. Synoptes, or... to maintain. notated text: at the foot of the Latin column, the text regarding Paulus Sinopensis references the uncertainty of the identity of the author, mentioning the possibility of him being Paulus Silentiarius, the author of works on the Pythian Baths, but leaving the question open until further evidence is found.

^A then added, after his formation properly speaking, "male and female He created them," it showed obviously that this creation is one thing and that creation another: the former representing the generosity of the Creator (for "in the image of God He created him"), and the latter indicating the difference of forms ("male and female He created them"). This discourse indeed seems burdensome, but only to those who follow their own reasoning. For those who search the holy Scriptures of the Fathers, it is worthy of all acceptance, because such a discourse is clear. And hear what the wise-in-divine-matters Anastasius says. For to the things said beforehand he added these also, wishing to clarify from many things what had been stated: ^B "The second creation is the formation of the male and female, which was added to the molding [of the man], the one who had been made in accordance with the first creation, clearly, in the image of God, in whom there was no difference of forms, because not even in that divine and blessed image was any such thing devised." If these things are so, it is reasonable to say that God, out of foreknowledge, gave such a structure to Adam from the beginning, if indeed such a difference of forms belongs to the second creation, which He necessarily added after the first formation, as has been said; for He was not ignorant of what was to happen. And attend, if you wish, to John Damascene speaking about the first man: "But God, the Foreknower, knowing that he would fall into transgression and would be subject to corruption, for this reason brought forth the female from him." ^C So if he had not fallen from the angelic life, this difference of forms would not have been added, because the one who had been made in the image of God would have had no need of it for the propagation of the race, since he was going to be multiplied like the angels, as was discussed above. But we must take up the discourse again.

On the Serpent.

God’s sentence after the transgression to the serpent: "On thy breast and belly thou shalt go." Since thou didst deceive the heart and didst persuade the belly to take of the food, on thy breast and belly thou shalt go. For He does not declare the walking upon the belly—as if he possessed feet beforehand, as Josephus and the so-called "Little Genesis" ^D say—but since, according to the golden-tongued John, because of his upright posture he had such liberty as to draw near to the ear of Eve and converse concerning such things, he was most justly condemned to drag himself upon the earth. For even if he had been formed footless from the beginning, yet by circles of certain lower coils, he used to move, riding high with his chest extended. For this reason, even today the serpent, when angered, often raises himself and runs coiled in circles. But having proceeded as much as to show the memory of his former gait, he is again cast down by the law of the sentence. And observe with intelligence that it is so burdensome for one to...

[if] by the manner of dogs, bark and bite those who approach them, and by such a bite they propagate the evil itself. But the cause of the other symptoms is clear. For when the venom has occupied all the limbs and the brain itself, it brings about such symptoms. But concerning the cause of their fear of water, some say it comes from an excessive dryness, as if they were entirely alienated from the moist substance; but Rufus declares that a certain species of melancholy happens to them, in that the venom imitates that humor on account of which others fear various things. And what need is there to speak at length? For just as we see it happen with the melancholic that some seem to be brute animals and therefore imitate their voices, while others believe themselves to be earthenware vessels and for this reason fear vehemently that they might be broken, and others think Atlas is falling upon them and therefore are forced to shout loudly, so too among those bitten by mad dogs one may see the same. For the venom of the dog, like a certain wretched humor, having occupied their brain, makes them fear water, and in that fear, the imagination of the dog that bit them [arises]; and in that way they are convulsed and finally exchange life for death. It is indeed said that a certain philosopher, having been bitten by a mad dog, entered a bath, and seeing the dog in the basin, and not being terrified, said: “What does a dog have in common with a bath?” But enough of these.

^B The bear brings forth flesh that has neither shape nor form. But afterwards, by licking it with its mouth, it forms its limbs. Furthermore, its cubs do not suckle at its breasts, but by sucking their own feet, they grow from that. It brings forth before the time, so that it may come together with the male. But the bear is also in danger during birth. And being in labor at night, it watches the star of the Bear, and thus brings forth easily. The bear is very gluttonous, yet during winter it sits in its den and being hungry, it licks its foot and is nourished; this is unique to it alone among land animals, just as it is to the octopus among sea creatures.

But of the wild asses, the females, whenever they bring forth a male, cut off its genitals so that it may not propagate. The wild ass is a very dry animal, and on that account, thirsty. For which reason David, while speaking about waters, says: “The wild asses will wait for their thirst.” ^C It is also said that the fox, when lacking food, lies on its back as if it were dead and holds its breath; and because of this, the birds, seeing it swollen, descend upon it and touch it as if it were dead. Then, suddenly leaping up, the one they believed dead captures and devours them. But the ibex is a swiftest animal and dwells upon the cliffs, and when chased, it leaps onto its horns, and is not injured.

^A and frequently. At that time, he approaches the high priest Abiathar; then he also ate the loaves of the presence. From there, he flees again to Abimelech; at that time, he also feigns the symptoms of those suffering from epilepsy. Beyond these things, David, finding Saul ^B once and twice, and having the power easily to kill him, did not wish to do so, committing everything concerning himself to God. And concerning these things, so be it. But the Philistines again wage war against the Jews, for which reason Achish also summons the same as allies. Saul also attacks Mount Gilboa, and seeing the massive encampment of the foreigners, he was troubled, and his heart failed him. And he inquired of the Lord through the Ephod, and He did not answer him; for if they were not in favor with Him, He did not hear them. Wherefore ^C he seeks a ventriloquist, even though he had previously managed to expel their kind from his city, as he was previously pious toward God. Now they were called ventriloquists because they have a demon dwelling in their belly, speaking oracles about the future. That woman is persuaded with difficulty, and she brings up the soul of Samuel from Hades, just as Josephus records. For the one wise in divine things, Theodoret, calls this account impious and profane; for he is not persuaded ^D that the soul of a dead man is brought up from Hades and that any soul at random could be, let alone that of such a great prophet. But others, not wishing to accept this account as profane, say that a certain deceiver of the people, a demon, reported the things concerning Saul to the ventriloquist. Theodoret accepts neither the first, as it is impious, nor again the second; for if the one who appeared were a demon, he would not have uttered true words. Therefore, he says that God himself, having fashioned the appearance of Samuel, willed it and brought forth the decree; for He said through one of the prophets: "If you approach a false prophet, I, the Lord God, shall answer through him." So, through Balaam, He blessed the people, and through a profane seer, the things to come were announced. These things come to pass, and the Philistines attack the Hebrews. Finally, Saul and his sons fall. Saul, however, having received many wounds, and being unable to bear it, commands one of his men to turn his sword upon him, so that he might not be handed over to the hands of his enemies. He did not obey. Finally, he falls upon his own sword, and being unable even thus to bring about his own end, he persuades one of the Amalekites, and he finishes him. And the Philistines, despoiling the enemies, encounter Saul and his sons, and having cut off their heads, they carry them about through all the country, and they crucify their bodies outside the wall, as Josephus records.

^B He was compared to the senseless cattle and became like them." For in accordance with this, the great Maximus also said in his letters to Thalassius that these passions—that is, pleasure, sorrow, desire, and all the rest—were not primarily created with the nature of men, but that they entered in after the fall from perfection, taking root in that part of the nature which is more irrational, through which, instead of the divine and blessed image, the likeness of irrational beasts became immediately manifest and apparent in man upon his transgression. For it was necessary, when the dignity of the intellect was hidden by those characteristics of irrational animals which he had drawn upon himself by his own will, that the nature of men should be justly punished, God rightfully guiding man to a consciousness of his rational greatness.

Yet it was not by necessity, in truth, that God bound us after the transgression to these desires, by which we are carried off toward food and drink and venery. For this is the reason why, for our born bodies, the birth, the nourishment, and the endurance for as long as each one's bodily constitution allows, exist. For being composed of four elements, it possesses its dissolution by necessity. For composition is the beginning of decomposition, as the theologian Gregory says. It is resolved, therefore, in some more quickly, in others more slowly. And be persuaded by the great Cyril, who says: "God left each one after the fall to complete his own life as his temperament happened to be." For this reason, nature also protected the essential parts of our life—that is, the heart, the brain, the liver, and all such things—everywhere with firm bones, so that they might not be easily harmed by any chance pretexts, and death not follow immediately.

However, He mixed pleasure in with these desires like some kind of bait, so that through it we might be easily drawn along. For if this were not the case, we would not run to food and drink, nor would we be entirely given over to venery. And were it not for this, the human race would perhaps have perished of necessity. In this regard, therefore, even the semen, being as it were a superfluity, urges and distresses and compels the creature to hasten to its discharge, God permitting even this by plan for the sake of the preservation of the race. ^C These things Mani and Valentinus, as it seems, being ignorant of, said that it was a creation of the devil, and that we are set aflame by him and rolled toward dishonor. But God did not abandon us to be entirely inclined toward connections, nor did He allow us to live without perception like the irrational animals. For He joined unpleasantness to pleasure and made it mixed, so that from the one side we might be drawn to the increase of the race, and from the other we might torment ourselves, and remember our earlier state, and cry out loudly against the sin because of which we were compared to the senseless cattle.

^A ...animals, however, perform their movement gently by means of the others. Thus, beloved son, custom becomes nature in some creatures. For observe that in Libya, animals do not drink during the summer, when the thirst is greatest, but they drink in the winter, when they are less thirsty. This happens entirely because there is no water in Libya during the summer, and because there is water available in the winter, they drink it. Thus, what they are accustomed to there, these animals preserve by custom even when they come to other places. And so much for these matters.

^B After these things, that is, after the production of land animals, God forms man and places him in Paradise. But pay attention here as well, beloved. For although some say that God created Paradise after the seventh day, claiming to follow the Mosaic history, they are clearly mistaken, as they pass over the Scriptures cursorily rather than with the intention of investigation. And hear what the spectator of God, Moses, says: "And God finished on the sixth day all the things that He made; and on the seventh day He rested from all His works which He had begun to make." If, then, after the seventh day He brought nothing from non-existence into existence, how did He create Paradise after the seventh day? The Scripture seems to say that Paradise was created after the seventh day, but its meaning is not what many suspect. And be convinced by the golden-mouthed John in his twelfth homily on the *Hexaemeron*, where he says that Moses, by recapitulating what had been briefly narrated before, caused simpler minds to think and say such things. Furthermore, if, as they say, Paradise was created after the seventh day, it is absolutely necessary to say that the formation of Adam from the dust, as well as the structure of Eve from his side, took place after the seventh day. For what reason? Because Moses is found narrating this later, that is, after the seventh day. Therefore, Paradise was before Adam. And hear what John Damascene says in his chapter concerning Paradise: "Since God was about to create man according to His own image and likeness, as a king and ruler of all the earth and the things within it, He prepares for him Paradise as a kind of royal palace, so that he might possess a happy and most blessed life from thence." ^D Mark this well: because, as it has been said, He establishes Paradise for him before Adam is formed, it is entirely evident that He planted this too on the sixth day, provided that He ceased from creating after the seventh day, as the golden-tongued one says.

^C And since your zeal for learning is well known to me, I shall deem it worthwhile to mention certain narratives from the Book of Judith. Nabuchodonosor, because the other nations did not bring him aid when he was at war with Arphaxad, sent his general Olophernes against the whole earth, saying to him: "Thus says the great king, the lord of all the earth." ^D Upon this, as Olophernes was setting out according to this command against the Jews, the Ammonite Achior also said these things: "If there is indeed an error in this people, and they sin against their God, we shall go up and make war upon them; but if not, let my lord pass by." And Olophernes said to Achior, "And who is the God,

^A He therefore plants the divine paradise in Eden toward the east at the time of the formation of Adam. For, as the great Theodoret, Basil, and John of Damascus say, having chosen a certain place toward the east, which was called Eden, and which was conspicuous and higher than all the rest of the earth, He plants the paradise in it, so that, as Severianus says, it might be delicate and flourish forever; for Eden is translated as "delight." God willed that man, having been created, should dwell in the place He bestowed upon him. For, He says, "He placed him in the paradise." But from this, beloved, we learn also this, that God formed Adam from another earth, but after these things He placed him in the paradise. And hear what the Scripture says: "And God cast out Adam from the paradise of delight, to till the earth from which he was taken." But why, and for what reason, does God form man outside the paradise, and then introduce him into it? It is so that he might learn from this, as the golden-tongued John says, of what honor he was deemed worthy by God, and what enjoyment was granted to him by Him. For observe that even those who are raised from the lowest rank to a higher and first position know by necessity what they were before and what they have subsequently attained to, a fact which also becomes the cause of no small rejoicing. ^{B C} God therefore forms man with His own hands, as it has been said. For He says, "And God took dust from the earth, and formed man, and breathed into his face the breath of life; and man became a living soul." Most rightly, therefore, are all land animals liable to death; for they came forth, as He says, from the earth together with their soul: "Let the earth bring forth," for He says, "a living soul." But man alone has shared in immortality, because he received his soul through the divine inbreathing and not from the earth: "He breathed," for He says, "into his face the breath of life," that is, the rational soul itself. For this did not come from the earth. And let the theologian Gregory persuade thee, as he goes through the formation of man word for word: "And having taken the body from the matter which already pre-existed, and having infused a breath from Himself, which the word recognizes as the rational soul of God, He brings forth man." ^D Pay attention, therefore. Since the rational soul was placed in man by God through inbreathing, for this reason it is also immortal. But the soul of irrational animals, having come forth from the earth according to the divine voice, is earthy; for this reason it is also mortal. And so much for these things. But it is necessary for thee to know, beloved, what the man of golden tongue says concerning these things also: "And God, creating the quadrupeds together with their bodies...

^A and brought forth their souls, but when forming man, He first fabricates the body as an instrument, and then places the soul within after it has been created; for He does not wish for the soul to be present at the creation, lest it boast as a fellow-worker of God." Pay attention, therefore. For He says, "He breathed"; that is, this body made from dust was willed and commanded to possess a vital power, which became the living creature into a living soul, that is, one acting and demonstrating that same art through the movement of the limbs. And so, beloved, these words are spoken in condescension, just as also [the words], "Let us make man." For God does not truly stand in need of deliberation or consideration, but by the guise of the speech He wishes to indicate to us the immense honor with which that being who was formed by Him is deemed worthy. He creates man, therefore, after the likeness of an image [that was] dead, as the golden-tongued one says. For the body lay at that time dead, needing that which would move it. Then He says, "And He breathed into his face the breath of life." These things, then, are said by the divinest John [Chrysostom] and in a very methodical way, putting to shame those who say that he follows the opinions of Origen. For from the stated words he appears to uproot the pre-existence of souls, which the foolish Origen championed.

And *He breathed into his face the breath of life*. But some, hearing the word "breathed" here, and not pondering the thickness of the terms and [the fact] that Scripture represents certain things through others, have supposed the soul to share in the very essence of God. But they have missed the mark. For if we grant this, God would be found punishing Himself in the gehenna of fire, if indeed, according to the holy Scripture, He delivers the soul there along with the body to be punished eternally; "For do not fear," He says, "them who kill the body, but cannot kill the soul; but rather fear Him who is able to destroy both soul and body in gehenna." ^B The breath, therefore, was not changed into a soul in order to create a soul, just as the hand does indeed write a letter, but yet it is not changed into letters, but the hand remains a hand and the letters are letters.

See, therefore, with a sensible mind. For He said "He breathed" here, in order that He might demonstrate the Holy Spirit, along with the Father and the Son, as the creator of man. For He says, "And God said, Let us make man." And God, taking dust from the earth, formed man. Who is it that said it? The Father. And who is it that took [the dust]? The Son. In order, therefore, that the Holy Spirit might not appear alien to the creation of man, He has adopted the word "breathed" quite wonderfully, through it indicating, as has been said, the Holy Spirit, ^C and that man was produced at that time as a participant in the grace of the all-holy Spirit, as the divinest Cyril says, even if the transgression later dimmed such a gift.

^A For this reason, also, when the Lord rose from the dead, he breathed upon the disciples and said: "Receive the Holy Spirit." For he could not bear that we should not again be shown to be participants of the all-holy Spirit—a thing which the priest even today breathes into the one being baptized, quickening as it were his soul, which had already been deadened by the transgression of Adam. But one must return again to the sequence of the discourse. ^B "He breathed into his face the breath of life." Our view, then, and the more truthful one regarding the union of the soul with the body, is simple and clear. For the body is from dust, but the soul is derived directly from God. And from this, when they are joined to one another, a single composite animal comes to be, and this is the union according to hypostasis, the coming together of two natures according to him. This is what the golden-tongued man wondered at when he said: "How is man formed in the womb? And how does the God-like soul suddenly appear together with the body?" Those, however, who boast of the wisdom that is from without, because they were ignorant of the creator of man, necessarily went astray regarding the actual formation. It is from the earth, then, as it has been said, that the dust is, but the soul is from God. ^C And this is what the Scripture says: "And he breathed into his face the breath of life, and man became a living soul." Pay attention, therefore. For it is plain from this that the soul is one, possessing different powers. Whence it is always present throughout the whole of the body and attaches itself to each limb in a fitting manner. For immediately they say that the irascible power of it makes its home in the heart, while the appetitive power similarly [makes its home] in the liver, and its rational power, touching upon the brain itself, shines through it to all things and is made manifest. And some, among whom is also Apollinaris, the bishop of Laodicea, believe there are two souls in man. For they say that the irrational part, that is to say the more irrational part of our soul, exists by itself, being an irrational soul and not a part of the rational one, first because it is found by itself ^D even in irrational animals, from which it is clear that it is a complete thing and not a part of another, and then because it is among the most absurd things that the irrational should be a part of the rational soul. But these men, in this way, believe in two souls in man; yet they are refuted by the divine Scripture which says: "And man became a living soul"; for it did not say "into living souls," but "into a living soul." But also Plotinus the wise, whom Apollinaris of Laodicea followed, says that man consists of three things: of mind, soul, and body. But even in this he has been deceived; for the mind, as the great Basil says, is of the same nature as the soul, and just as the eye is in the body, so also is the mind in the soul itself. For the cleaner and more authoritative part of it is named so; just as the soul of man is also called "noetic" [intelligent], by its total participation in the mind itself.

Starting from this premise, that divine man who was discussed [in this work] narrates the following concerning the soul: "I believe the power of the soul, though it be one and the same, to be twofold: the one is vital, subservient to the body; the other is a contemplator of existing things, which we call 'noetic' [intelligent]." Now the vital power, since it is mingled with the body, the soul provides naturally—due to that mixture—and not by the power of choice; but the contemplative power holds its motion within the scope of choice. ^B These things, therefore, that most holy Maximus also explains, saying that the part of the soul which is cleaner is free from passion and indivisible, comprehending intelligible things in an intelligible manner, while the part of the soul that is subject to passion and divisible—which is indeed partitioned into the senses—suffers with the body when it feels pain, and likewise takes pleasure when it is pleased; for the soul, as has been said, grows together with the pleasant things of life through the bodily senses, as the [Bishop] of Nyssa also says. For it is delighted by the fair color of matter through the eyes, and in its hearing it has a proclivity toward pleasant sounds, and in the rest it is similarly disposed according to each of the senses. In this regard, John Damascene also stated that the more irrational part of the soul is subject to passion and is appetitive. And again, the soul, being subject to passion, even though the body be cut, it is not itself cut as is the body, but nevertheless it suffers with it and experiences the same pain as the one who is suffering. ^C Hence arise both the pleasures common to soul and body, which come from their union and from food—as the aforementioned divine man said—and those [pleasures] arising from learning are peculiar to the soul alone, nor would anyone ever find pleasures belonging to the body alone. That the soul possesses a part subject to passion, through which it suffers with the body when it suffers, and is on this account anxious and sorrowful and receives the rest of the passions into which it fell after the sin, is clear from what the Lord said: "Now is my soul troubled." For it was permitted to His holy soul, just as to His body, to suffer at times what is proper [to them], and He observed the measure of the "emptying" [kenosis] everywhere, as the most divine Cyril said. For these passions—namely pleasure and sorrow and despondency—were not built into the nature of men from the beginning; but, as the most divine Maximus says, these were introduced later due to the fall from perfection, growing onto the more irrational part of nature. ^D Consistent with these things, the great Basil also narrates, saying: "Consider what the sympathy is that returns from the flesh to the soul: how the body receives life from the soul, and the soul receives pains from the body." And these [are] thus; but Aristotle, relying on human reasonings, insists that the ruling mind makes its dwelling within the very heart, so that its power of choice is easily distributed from there throughout the entire body. Others, however, [say that] the head has been built as a kind of acropolis...

GOD and the devil in their midst, and thus to converse before the Lord, the divine Chrysostom says is a prosopopoeia. Josephus, however, says that Baal is the god of the Tyrians, and Astarte is of the Sidonians, and Baalim is the shrine of Baal. And concerning these matters, so much. Josaphat, even having sought a prophet and learned such things, nonetheless went up to war with Ahab; yet because of his other virtue, as has been said above, he was preserved. Micah, however, having been cast into prison by Ahab, said with frankness: “If you return in peace, the Lord has not spoken through us.” But also the divine prophecy upon Ahab through Elijah came to pass. Being wounded, he stood for a long time in the chariot so that he might not cause a retreat by his flight. And the blood flowing was stuck to the chariot. The charioteer washed this by a spring, and the dogs licked it up. And the harlots bathed there at dawn according to custom; for the water was spring-fed, but dyed with the blood. ^B Joram, having emulated the impiety of his father-in-law Ahab, found worthy punishment. For the great Elijah, by means of letters, made known the sentence: “Thus says the Lord: Because you did not walk in the way of Josaphat your father, but killed your brothers, behold the Lord strikes a great plague in your house, and you shall be in evil ailments, in an ailment of the belly, until your intestines go out.” Therefore, those of other nations turned against him, and they enslaved everyone, and killed all his children except for Ochozias. And the disease also fell upon him, and not even after death was he deemed worthy of a royal burial. Truly, it is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God. After him came Ochozias, himself also an emulator of his fatherly impiety. Therefore, two captains of fifty with severity are sent to the great Elijah, summoning him so that he might be questioned concerning the king's disease; upon whom, having brought down fire from above, he consumed them. But here those accusing the cruelty of the prophet accuse God; for through him are all things. Therefore a third captain of fifty is sent, and using mild words he escaped the punishment. Descending, therefore, and having met those sent to the idols, he said, “Because there is no God in Israel, do you go to seek Baal-zebub, god of Accaron? The bed on which you have gone up, you shall not come down.” Let them know, therefore, from this ^C...

^A that this intelligible being can be seduced by certain deceptions and flatteries and by the simulation of a kind character and good counsel, and that its nature is led to become accustomed to them according to its own will and desire—before it makes the effort to pour out its water and its spirit, for it cannot be separated from these two unless every rope is cut. But why should I mention many things in words? There are reptiles which, even though they progress in such a way, yet do not fall under number, since they are implicitly assumed to be deficient. For if they were infinite in number, they could not in any way suffice for use, since they are consumed both together and by men. Indeed, the stronger feed themselves by devouring the weaker, yet they are not entirely consumed, when there is a growth that can be consumed.

And consider this point for me: the voice of God, or rather not the voice of God, but His will alone, which brought forth every species of fish from the waters. For this very will of God imparts its nature to the waters, which from the beginning received a certain vital power. For were it not so, the Spirit of God would not have been borne over them, a Spirit ^B by whose transformation He imparted that vital power to the waters, just as Chrysostom says, and that they would a little later come forth from them. For Chrysostom transmits that by these words a certain vital efficacy is signified. But Basil discourses more broadly on them in these words: “Whether Moses speaks of the diffusion of the air, I understand that our author enumerates the parts of the world, namely that God established heaven, earth, waters, and air, which were already being diffused and flowing at that time. Or if this is true, which is handed down earlier, it is thought to be spoken of the Holy Spirit of God. For in the sacred Scriptures no other spirit of God is called by name except that Spirit who resolves and completes the divine and blessed Trinity. ^C If you wish to embrace this opinion, you will perceive a greater fruit from it. For a certain Syrian, a man of admirable doctrine, used to say that ‘the Spirit hovered over,’ that is, fostered and enlarged the nature of the waters, just as a hen brooding over eggs imparts a certain vital power to them, as if they were being incubated; and from this it is clearly demonstrated that the Holy Spirit does not lack the power to create.”

And so much for the fish. Now the order of things demands that we also mention a few things about the birds, which themselves also have their origin from the waters. And for that reason they hold a certain kinship to the swimming creatures. For just as fish ^D living in the waters progress by the agitation of fins, and various movements of the tails regulate their direct courses, so also is it to be seen that in a similar manner they traverse the air with their wings. And they delight in the waters, the birds, because they arose from the waters. This alone is the difference from fish.

On the Soul

image. Hence, much has been philosophized about it, yet no one has ever been able to grasp its essence, created, as has been said, in the image of the incomprehensible and inconceivable God. But God, also instructing us so that we might have a humble mind and not imagine we can encompass everything that pertains to us, has placed such incomprehensibility in the soul. It is, by necessity, also incomprehensible in the archetype. Pay attention, my beloved. For the discourse, having arrived, has established that the soul stands together with the body, and from this a breathing composite being is fulfilled, which is man. And this is the union according to hypostasis, this is the co-existence of disparate natures according to their union. Therefore, in the way that both body and soul suddenly come together in the womb, in the same way, again, they are suddenly separated from each other at the time of death. Therefore, whoever thinks that the soul withdraws bit by bit from the body at the time of death—because the extremities of those who do not end suddenly grow cold and are completely insensible, as though it began to contract and curl up in parts from the furthest reaches of the body, so that when it is all gathered towards the heart it is then suddenly taken up—such a person is deceived. For it is not so, but just as the sun shines suddenly upon the body, lighting up the air in an instant, in the same way it flies off from it. Therefore, it is not extended, as we said above, nor is it divided, but while it enlivens the whole through the whole, it stands no less on its own. What then is that which is extended along with the body and enlivens it? It is nature and the irrational life. For it was not fitting for the soul to associate with the gross body without some intermediate link attached to the extremities. And this indeed is extinguished along with the extremities before the final expiration, it does not withdraw from there. For it would be immortal if it returned into itself. But when this intermediate bond is dissolved, the soul departs the body, as if in an atom or the twinkling of an eye, as the Apostle says. And the discourse has already set out so much concerning the soul itself. ^B It showed that it is suddenly in the womb as the God-like [image].

It is necessary to dwell a little on those things that have been physiologically theorized of old concerning the body. For what reason? Because the soul is accustomed to act according to the state of the body. For just as this brilliant sun emits its rays toward us according to the thickness or thinness of the air, so also the intellectual soul shows its own operation according to the state of the organ. Hence it is possible to see those who are foolish and those who are not, the sleepy and the quick, the irascible and the gentle, the brave and the cowardly, and many other...

others of this kind. And do not regard what is said as a myth; for you have the divine Anastasius of Sinai saying that God is not the cause of such things, but rather nature itself and the concurrence and convergence of the four elements. ^A For if an abundance of the hot element is found at the time of the infant's conception, that which is born becomes of a hot temperament; but if the cold element prevails, that which is born is found to be of a colder disposition. From this, then, come the irascible and the mild, the brave and the cowardly. Consider the boar and the deer; the one is ready for battle because of heat, while the other flees the fight because of the cowardice resulting from cold. But if the dry element prevails, it produces a person who is sober and quick. Regarding which a certain wise man, whose name was Heraclitus, said, "A drier soul is wiser," calling the substance of the brain "soul" in this instance. But if the moist element abounds, it makes one sluggish and difficult to rouse. According to this, therefore, natural mildness, prudence, and temperance are not judged by the divine Fathers to be virtues, but natural advantages. And pay attention to the great Basil himself, who says, "I have known many who by nature hate sexual intercourse with a woman. Shall we therefore call them temperate? By no means; for temperance is that very power of self-control ^B and the overcoming of the pleasures that fight against us." And so much for these matters.

Regarding the passage: "Let us make man." Why, when molding man, did God not take a clod, but rather dust, which is the finest substance? He did this partly to curb our puffing up, and partly to provide from this source a hope for the resurrection. Since He foresaw that this creature was destined to die and return to dust, He anticipated this in the creation by granting the hope of the resurrection. He takes dust from the earth so that, when you see dust in a tomb, you may know that He who molded it will also raise it up. But you also ask, for what reason He creates man double, consisting of an intellectual soul and a body? So that he might be a bond between the intelligible world and the sensible world. For since these two worlds are separated by their essence, in order that He might not introduce different creators, He set man as a double creature in the world, so that from this, one Creator of both the things above and the things below might be proclaimed.

"Let us make man in our image." Why does Holy Scripture call the creature composed of body and soul "man" (*anthropos*)? In the Hebrew language, "man" denotes fire. And because God foresaw that the ends of the inhabited world would be filled with human bodies from a single man, just as one lamp lights many lamps, for this reason He called such a creature "man," that is to say, fire. For as for the others...

each element remains as it is. Take, for example, a clod of ^A earth: it remains as it is. If you take water by a certain measure, it remains the same water and receives no addition. If you fill a skin with air, you cannot fill another skin from it. But fire does not remain as it is; rather, if you take an equal amount of material, the fire increases. And if you light many lamps from one lamp, you do not innovate upon it. Fittingly, therefore, He called Him "man" (anthropos). For this reason He also called him by the name of Adam. For because the four regions of the world were about to be filled by him, He bestowed such a name upon him. And observe the letters of such a name: for they signify the four climates: Alpha, the East (anatole); Delta, the West (dysis); Alpha, the North (arktos); and M, the South (mesembria). Well, therefore, did He call such a creature both Adam and man; for from him, as has been said before, the four regions have been filled. For Scripture says: "And God planted a paradise in Eden toward the East." But why did He not plant the paradise in another region, but toward the East? From where the beginning of the course of the luminaries is, from there also is the conduct of men. God gives a forewarning of the future. He places the man toward the East in the paradise, that He might show that just as these luminaries rise and run toward the West and set, so also it is necessary for this man to run from life to death and set according to the pattern of the luminaries, and to receive another rising again, the resurrection from the dead. Adam ran toward the West, he sank into the grave. Christ came and made the one who had set to rise. For this reason the ^B prophet says: "Behold a man whose name is the East." Know also this, that the river which goes out from the paradise is divided into four beginnings, that is to say, sources, from which the four rivers arise. And if these four rivers have their beginning from one river, why is not also their water one? Why is not their quality one for them? They participate in the earth and in the quality of the places through which they pass, and for this reason they have a varied taste and quality. For observe that even water itself has one nature and quality, but if wormwood is cast into it, it produces a different quality, if dill, another, and immediately another if rue. Moreover, God ordered the rivers to pass through certain subterranean places and to reappear from other sources, so that those following their banks might not attempt to reach the paradise itself. I know, my beloved, ^C that you seek this among other things: why it is that Moses, explaining in turn about heaven and earth and all things, nowhere appears to make mention of the creation of the angels. Know, therefore, that those to whom these laws were given had nothing solid or firm. For if this had not been the case, they would not have proclaimed the image of a calf as God, even after they had viewed such miracles. But those who with such ease [turned] the things of beasts

into idols while calling them gods, what would they not have done if they had received the knowledge of the invisible natures? Therefore, since Moses kept silent regarding these matters, the prophet David, after a long interval of time, makes mention of their creation—albeit cursorily, due to the infirmity of his hearers—and says: “He spoke, and they were made; He commanded, and they were created.” ^A And that great interpreter of divine things, Dionysius, discourses more broadly concerning the invisible natures, as one who directs his teaching toward those capable of grasping such things. For he has admirably distinguished their station, their order, their knowledge, their illumination, their difference from one another, and the operation inherent in each, which he taught to those who were ignorant of them.

Concerning the Angelic Orders

Furthermore, I wish you to know this in addition to the other things: that the orders of the celestial hierarchies are nine in number, and they are these: Cherubim, Seraphim, Thrones, Dominions, Powers, Authorities, Principalities, Archangels, Angels. But if there are other orders in the heavens, concerning which we are to hear and learn in the age to come, the blessed Paul knows, having said: ^B “Christ is seated above every principality and authority and power and every name that is named, not only in this age, but also in the one to come.” The divine Dionysius, however, divides the specified nine orders into three hierarchies; he says that the first consists of the Seraphim, the Cherubim, and the Thrones, which stand immediately and directly before God; the second, of the Dominions, the Powers, and the Authorities; and the third and last, of the Principalities, the Archangels, and the Angels. The last order among them, as has been said before, is properly called Angels, as they announce and convey the divine manifestations to us. This angelic title is also granted to all the intellectual natures because the thearchic ^C illumination occurs to them first, and thus through them the things beyond us are conveyed to us; for even the law itself was given to us through angels, and angels guided those illustrious Fathers, both before the law and after the law, to the divine; for through the first, the things that are second are led upward toward the divine. Nor are there only intellectual natures above us, but within these very same co-ordinate hierarchies there are first, middle, and last ranks, and the more divine among them become guides for the lesser ones toward divine approach and illumination. And while the theologians call the most holy ^D orders of the highest essences "angels," as has been said (for they too are interpreters of the thearchic illumination), it is unreasonable to designate the last order of the celestial minds—that is, the angels—as Cherubim or Seraphim or Thrones; for it does not share in the essence of the highest powers. Beyond these, therefore...

we see that all these intellectual natures are called powers, as being free from bodily passions and, consequently, able to fulfill what is commanded: "Mighty in strength," it says, "doing His word." But also, according to every sacred arrangement, the superior orders possess the enlightenments and powers of the subordinate arrangements, whereas the last are not partakers of those that rank above them. It is necessary for you to know this besides: that every name of the celestial minds contains a declaration of each one’s God-like property in the Hebrew tongue, just as the golden-mouthed John also says in his third discourse on the Incomprehensible. For some are called Cherubim, and others Seraphim. ^B Such names indeed signify their operations; and just as an angel is so called because he announces the divine manifestations to us, and an archangel because he rules over the angels, so such titles show us their wisdom and purity. And just as wings signify the height of their nature (for Gabriel appears flying, not because an angel has wings, but so that you may learn that he has arrived from the highest regions to the human nature), so also in the case of the Cherubim and Seraphim, the wings signify nothing other than the height of their nature, and the eyes their keen-sightedness. Likewise, the singing of hymns at all times indicates their wakefulness ^C and swiftness. In this way, the names of some signify their wisdom, and of others their purity. For what is Cherubim if not "multiplied knowledge"? And what are Seraphim if not "fiery mouths"? The designation of "Thrones" signifies nothing else than their exemption from all things lowly, and their openness and readiness for divine receptions. This, then, is the first rank, being initiated directly by the Essence-producing Godhead; the title of "Dominions" indicates a certain unenslaved and entirely free subjection, constantly yearning for the truly sovereign dominion. The title of "Powers" represents a certain virile and unshakable force toward all God-like operations, and that of "Authorities" a certain orderly and unconfused arrangement ^D concerning divine receptions. This, therefore, is the middle arrangement of the celestial minds, which is perfected and illuminated through the first hierarchic arrangement, and in turn conveys the enlightenments to the one after it. And indeed, the name of "Principalities" indicates their God-like and princely nature, and their being fashioned, as far as possible, after the Principle-producing Principle. The title of "Archangels" signifies that they partake of the extremities; for it holds in common with the Principalities and the angels—with the former, because it is turned principially toward the super-essential Principle, and with the latter, because it is of the sub-prophetic order, revealing the thearchic enlightenments through the first-mentioned powers to the angels…

^A revealing their mission. The name of angels depicts their manifesting ministry. The discourse therefore has shown that the first orders receive the illuminations directly from God, and the second from the first, and subsequently the rest, that is, the third from the second. Concerning the fact that there is a certain difference among the supernal powers, and that they possess knowledge according to their position, order, and rank, the most divine Cyril also indicated this in his book of *Treasures* (*Thesauris*), saying: “Knowledge is proportioned to every rational being, so that we believe there is one [measure] in angels, a greater one in archangels, and one exceeding these in the higher powers.” But also Johannes Damascenus says this about them: “The supernal powers differ from one another in illumination and in station, whether they hold their station according to the illumination ^B or partake of the illumination according to their station, and they illuminate one another on account of the excellence of order or nature.” It is clear, as has also been said above, that those who excel communicate of their illumination and knowledge to those below them. In addition to the things said, he also states this, that the supernal powers guard parts of the earth, and preside over nations and places, just as they were ordered by the Creator. That these things are so, the most holy Patriarch Germanus demonstrates more clearly. For in his discourse on the Dormition of the Theotokos, he says these things about this matter: “At the same time that the races of men were established, angels were ordered to oversee their lives. For He set, he says, the boundaries of the nations according to the number of the angels of God ^C, and the angel of the Lord camps around those who fear him. When men deviated into idolatry, the angels also withdrew from them. But at the time when the all-immaculate [Virgin] was giving birth, those in heaven were united with those on earth, and there became a harmonious commonwealth for angels and men, and one doxology.” Something similar is recounted by the golden-tongued John about the angels. For he says that the prophet Daniel calls the angels a great thing, and that by the command of God the entire creation was distributed, and they were set in charge of the nations, and that one of them watches over the Persians, while the archangel Michael guards the people of the circumcision. ^D That a dispute arose between both protectors, not out of the passion of anger, but according to some divine and ineffable reason, while the one compelled the Jews to serve the Persians as if they were despisers of God, while the other drew them back toward freedom, and said: “Cease, you protectors of the Persians, for God...

^A has punished those who were sinning, but does not turn away from those who are converted.” And that a divine angel attends upon each of the faithful for the purpose of guardianship has been described by the great Basil among others. He says: “Just as smoke drives away bees, and an offensive odor repels doves, so also does sin, being full of tears and stinking, separate from us the angel who is the guardian of our life.” The same has also been made known by Theodoret. For in his *Therapeutic* he says these words: “The devil is said to have fallen because of being puffed up with pride, and thereupon to have raged against men who were honored as the divine image, and to have entered into war against them. Hence it is that the Creator has appointed the supervision of angels to guard the human race, so that he [the devil] might not, by exercising force and tyranny, come upon them invisibly and destroy without fear those whom he hated out of envy.” And that these things are so, and that each of the faithful possesses a guardian angel, is also described in the Gospel according to Matthew. For it says: “See that you do not despise one of these little ones; for their angels always behold the face of my Father who is in heaven.” And concerning these matters, let these things be indicated.

Furthermore, it has been questioned by some whether these intellective powers were created before the production of heaven and earth, or after their creation. ^B Theodoret, therefore, along with Gennadius, asserts that this observable world was brought forth before those invisible natures. For since angels are circumscribed by limits, it was altogether fitting that there should be some place in which they might be circumscribed. But the rest of the list of Fathers seems not to admit this at all. And then hear what the great Basil says in his *Hexaemeron*: “There was a state of being older than the creation of the world, befitting those ultramundane powers. And in it the Creator of all things brought forth creations, an intellective light, befitting the blessedness of the angels who love the Lord.” But hear also what Gregory, called the Theologian, says: “First, God conceives of the angelic and heavenly powers, and that thought was a work, completed by the Word and perfected by the Spirit; and second, He conceives of the material and visible world.” ^C His brother Caesarius also relates things similar to this, saying: “All the fleshless choirs of angels were living in light even before this world was generated.” And the most divine Anastasius Sinaites speaks thus concerning these matters: “Our God, who is always existing, before all creation conceives and makes the angelic and heavenly powers, as He alone knew.” But besides these, both Severus and Diodorus, and the great Amphilochius himself, demonstrate the creation of the ^D invisible natures to be prior to this observable and sensible world.

^A John Damascene says the following about this: "Some say that after the first heaven the invisible powers were brought forth; but I agree with Gregory the Theologian. For it was fitting that the intellectual essence be created first, then the sensible, and thus man from both." God brings forth the celestial powers, as has been said before, and then the heaven and the earth, the sea, and all things in them. Finally, with His own hands He fashions man, having taken dust from the earth and breathed into him, as was said above. "Let us make man according to our image and likeness," and let them have authority over the fish of the earth. Why did He mention the fish here first, ^B having said, "And let them have authority over the fish of the sea, the birds of the heaven, and the beasts of the earth"? Because of the order of creation; for first the fish came from the sea, then the birds, and after these the quadrupeds from the earth. And they ask this too, beloved, for what reason did God lead the animals to Adam? He had previously said, "Let us make man according to our image, and let him have authority over the fish." Consequently, so that what He had said might become clear by deeds themselves, for this reason He led the animals to Adam, so that from this their subjection might be acknowledged (for indeed they all stood by as if they were slaves), and the wisdom granted by God to Adam might become evident to everyone; for upon each of the animals he bestowed a name appropriate to its nature. "Let us make man according to our image and likeness," that is to say, let us give him an abundance of reason, as the great Basil says: "And the 'according to the image' I received from God, that is, to be rational; but the 'according to the likeness' He left to me. For if I had received this as well from there, what merit is mine? I therefore possess the 'according to the likeness' when I become good of my own accord." Consistent with these, John Damascene also says that God created us according to the likeness, so that we might be likened to Him as much as is possible for a man; for virtue was indeed given by God to our nature, but it rests with us to remain in it and follow God, or to depart from it and follow the devil. And John of the golden tongue (Chrysostom), in his homily on the Hexaemeron, says this: "On the day God created Adam, He created him according to the image of God, that is, He gave him authority over all things. For just as God has authority over all things, both visible and invisible, being the creator of all, so too, having created this rational animal, He willed it to have authority over all seen things. Therefore He also graced him with the essence of his soul, willing him to be immortal unto eternity. But even when he had transgressed the commandment, He did not turn away from him completely, but deprived him of immortality, and having condemned him to death upon the...

^A earth, He left him in that same dominion. For man, by the reason with which he is endowed, even today holds all things in his power. For although we see wild beasts sometimes rushing upon man according to their own impulse, we should not marvel at this to such an extent, since it happens by divine providence, so that in this way we may be reminded, even against our will, of the sin for which we were condemned to fear and tremble as though beneath a yoke. That man was appointed by God as the ruler of all things upon the earth is evident even from his form; for, as you see, man’s form is upright, reaching toward heaven and looking upward. All these things, as the Nyssen says, seem to be marks of authority and to signify royal dignity; for the fact that man alone among all existing things is such, while all other creatures have their bodies inclined toward the earth, clearly shows the difference in his status. ^B Observe, therefore, beloved, the beginning that He allowed to exist. For by that which is present in him...

Pay attention, beloved. Wishing to honor man, God plants a paradise first, and only then places him within it, even though Pyrrhus the chronicler writes that Adam entered Paradise after forty days. But I do not know where Adam was dwelling before, if he spent forty days outside of Paradise. Now the golden-tongued John [Chrysostom] casts this suspicion aside, saying: "It was possible for Adam to dwell even outside Paradise. But those places were not marked out and destined for the habitation of man, but for the beasts of burden and all the wild animals of the earth. Paradise, however, was a royal dwelling place for them; for this reason, God led the animals to Adam as beings separated from him." If these things are so, do not offer your ears to Pyrrhus, but to this golden-tongued orator, for he is truly a disciple of the all-holy Spirit. ^C

Following this, the text says: "Let us make for him a helper according to him," that is, similar to him in all things and of the same nature, but not similar to the remaining animals, because they do not happen to share the same nature with him. But here, Manes called God a liar, and Aquila did the same; for in their Greek version they interpreted the phrase "according to him" in a way contrary to Him, because perhaps this helper caused Adam to transgress, and hence the helper became a conspirator. And these are the opinions of such men; but according to the most divine Cyril and John Damascene, this helper was named for Adam for the sake of the constitution of the human race. Therefore, God casts a deep sleep upon Adam, and extracting one of his ribs, He builds the woman. And Adam, having beheld her later, most prophetically said: "This is now bone of my bones." For not even the woman, ^D even still the same...

will be produced from man alone, but through the conjunction of both and the law of marriage. Therefore, God casts an ecstasy upon Adam, and taking one of his ribs, builds Eve. For it was necessary that Eve should not come forth from the earth, but from the substance of Adam, so that out of this a bond of love might be placed within the consorts. He casts an ecstasy, therefore—that is, He places a deep sleep upon Adam—so that he would not have the sensation of pain in the removal of the rib, as the Golden-mouthed one says, and from that point be disposed with hostility toward his consort. He takes, therefore, one of his ribs and builds the woman, and He filled in with flesh in its stead. Why, then, did He fill it in? So that he would not, after the release from sleep, have the sensation of what had happened from what was missing; for if he had remained ignorant during the time of the removal, nevertheless he was going to recognize what had occurred afterward. On account of this, God filled in the defect of the rib with flesh. ^A "And God said, Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth." We must attend to the great Basil here also. For he says that increase is twofold: the one of the body, the other of the soul. But the increase of the body is the restoration from small size to the befitting magnitude, whereas the increase of the soul comes about additionally through instructions. But also, John of the Golden Mouth so speaks concerning the soul: that once having received existence from God, it does not further tend toward increase as the body does; for how could this be, being in itself without quantity and without form, as the image of God? Therefore, the intellectual soul was created perfect from the beginning, even if it appears to grow little by little along with the body. And this is clear from what Gregory of Nyssa says: ^B "The form of the soul appears according to the proportion of the organ underlying it. For the communion with the impassioned and animal generation did not cause the divine image to shine forth in the creature at once, but by a certain way and sequence leads man unto the perfect—not that another soul is produced for the infant and another for the perfect man, but [the same] itself shows its imperfection in the former and its perfection in the latter." Therefore, the soul is indeed perfect even in infant age, but it is unable to display the whole of its operation. For just as an excellent musician plays a narrow and distorted melody on small pipes, but when he finds broad ones, then he demonstrates his art in full, so also the soul, as Gregory the Theologian discusses in his metrical verses; for according to the disposition of the instrument, so does it display its operation. ^{C D}

^A “Increase and multiply, and fill the earth.” Not by habitation, however, but by authority, as the great Basil says. For men are not duty-bound to fill the scorched, uncultivated, frozen, and inaccessible regions; but God made us lords to fill it. And we fill it by our reason. For when we see how great is the extent of the scorched and uninhabitable land, and when we see how vast is the northern climate—which, by reason of the excessive cold, is uncultivated and useless—we find that we have not filled the earth; but by choosing what is useful, we have left aside that which is useless for the habitation of men.

^B “And God said: Behold, I have given you every tree which has fruit in itself; to you it shall be for food, and to all the beasts of the earth.” Take heed, therefore: for God made man the master of the fish and the rest, yet He did not grant him their enjoyment. So the first law granted only the enjoyment of fruits. For we were still considered worthy of paradise; and so fruit, herbs, and grass were for our food, as they were for the birds of the air and all the beasts of the earth. For even if now the lion and the leopard rejoice in blood, nevertheless, these too, being subject to the law of nature, were nurtured on fruits. But when God saw man had become intemperate, He granted him, by a second law after the flood, the enjoyment of all things, saying: “All these things you shall eat as the herbs of the grass.” By this permission, the other animals also received license to eat [flesh]. From that time on, the lion became bloodthirsty, and from that time, vultures began to look for carcasses. For vultures did not, immediately upon being born, survey the earth looking for animals so that they could feed upon them; rather, they all roamed the meadows. And even today, we see dogs often grazing on grass for the sake of health—not because that is their natural food, but because the irrational animals approach what is beneficial by a certain untaught instruction of nature. You should consider the carnivorous animals to have been like that then, intending grass for themselves as food, and not conspiring against one another. The enjoyment of these things was therefore granted, as has been said, after the flood; ^C nevertheless, even now, those who wish to lead their lives in imitation of the life in paradise—fleeing from this excessive indulgence in food and drawing themselves toward that life as much as is possible—use fruits and seeds and the products of fruit-bearing trees; and we turn away from the excess of these things as unnecessary; for they are not detestable in themselves because of the Creator, nor are they to be chosen because of the desires of the flesh. ^D *On using meat.* I know, beloved, that you have also been perplexed by this.

And the Evangelist, making this clear, said that even when he had taken the morsel, he went out; and it was night. He departs, therefore, to those with whom he had agreed to deliver up the Lord. And the Lord, having settled the final matters with his disciples, goes then to a place which the traitor also knew, who immediately, having taken the cohort from the chief priests and the officers of the Pharisees, comes there with lanterns and torches. He questions them, therefore; they fall to the ground. Peter cuts off the ear of Malchus, even if he was not able to cut off his head; for this was indeed what he was striving to do. Then, at that very moment, the Lord said to him, “Dost thou think that I cannot now beseech my Father, and He will provide for me more than twelve legions of angels? How then shall the Scriptures be fulfilled, that it must be so?” The Savior said these things to the disciples, striking fear into them and persuading them from that point on not to meddle curiously with any of the things taking place. For if, he says, this is pleasing to the Scriptures—that I must suffer, namely—how do you oppose, using swords? The cup which the Father has given me, shall I not drink it? Having therefore bound Jesus, they led Him away to Annas first, and there He is judged. He is questioned concerning His teaching and His disciples. He answers as is fitting. He receives a blow to the face, and He says, “If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil,” and the rest. ^B From there, therefore, He is led to Caiaphas, then to Pilate, it being morning. Before the cock crows, He is led to Caiaphas; but in the morning, to Pilate. The Evangelist shows that for the entire half of the night, being questioned by Caiaphas, He was convicted of nothing; for which reason he also sent Him on to Pilate. And Mark, discussing the matter of the cock-crow, speaks thus: “Before the cock crow twice, thou shalt thrice deny me” (for when he denied once, the cock crowed the first time; but when he denied the third time, it crowed the second), explaining more accurately the weakness of Peter, having learned it from the teacher himself, that he was also a pupil of his. But Matthew, having said, “Before the cock crow, thou shalt thrice deny me,” indicated the whole of the cock-crowing—that is, the first, which occurs through different vocalizations, just as the second cock-crowing occurs, and the third. Therefore, by Matthew saying “Before the cock crow,” thou shalt thrice deny me, he was saying, as it were, that even before the first cock-crowing reached its end, thou shalt thrice deny me. After, however, the Lord was judged by Pilate, His back is scourged with braided thongs; for such is also the meaning of the word *flagellum* (scourge). After that, He is delivered up to be crucified. And all these things have been brought about by the unseasonable cowardice of Pilate; for the Jews...

^A should they eat from the tree, by death you shall die," they might have had something to say who call him a medium between immortality and mortality. But since the commandment—from which death indeed took occasion against us (for if you eat, He says, "by death you shall die")—was given long after his production, those who study the Scripture should not have hesitated at all. For God created man for incorruption from the beginning; that is, He immediately brought him forth incorruptible according to the image of His own eternity. ^B But do not be troubled concerning this. You have the divine Anastasius of Sinai, who in his discourse on the Resurrection speaks of these things as follows: "And God made man; in the image of God He made him. This first creation was simple, unmarried, incorruptible." If, then, the first creation was incorruptible, as this holy man who has been discussed said, what must one say about that first man? For God immediately brought him forth incorruptible, as has already been said, and honored him with immortality. And these words are not my own. The most divine Andrew of Crete, in his discourse On Those Who Have Fallen Asleep, is found speaking of these matters in this way: "God fashioned man, and granted him the dignity of being rational, intellectual, immortal, and indestructible." If, then, God granted immortality as a dignity to man, how can we henceforth call him mortal and immortal, or similarly corruptible and incorruptible? ^C This is inadmissible, I think, and, moreover, it is not fitting to ascribe to that which is immortal and indestructible the mortal and corruptible at all. But I do not know whence those men, having taken their pretexts, not only mix the unmixable—when they say that the body of Adam was a medium between immortality and mortality—but also do not refrain from attributing natural passions to him who was impassible and incorruptible before sin, and this without any scriptural demonstration. But do not fear for this reason. For that he who was to the image of God existed from the beginning with such a nature—namely, incorruptible and immortal—and that that body of Adam in a certain way did not suffer, being above all corruption, the golden-tongued John will teach you more extensively and more clearly, ^D as he handles the discourse upon this in his book of the Homilies *ad Populum*. For since certain persons had so disparaged this body as being corruptible, to the extent of calling it unworthy of God's creation (for they said that if it were a figment of divine hands, it would not have been subject to such myriads of passions), he used such words toward them: "Let no one present to me this man who has offended, who has been condemned, who has been disgraced; but if you wish to learn what kind of body God fashioned for us from the beginning, let us go to paradise."

^A And let us behold that man who was created from the beginning. For that body was not then corruptible and subject to decay; but, like some golden statue newly emerged from the furnace and gleaming brightly, that body was exempt from all corruption, and neither did toil trouble it, nor did sweat defile it, nor did cares lay snares for it, nor did sadness besiege it, nor was it troubled by filth, by tears, or by any other such passions. But since he behaved insolently toward his Benefactor, and hoped to become God, and conceived a conceit greater than his own worth, then indeed, then, in order to discipline him, God made him corruptible and mortal, and bound him to these many necessities. » These are the words of the most divine John. On this account, the word rightly called that body incorruptible; for that which is not subject to any corruption is confessedly incorruptible. But if it was incorruptible, how then and in what manner did it suffer? We are anxious to learn this. For we are not able to conceive from ourselves how a body liberated from all corruption could fall under passions, and for this reason we ask to learn. That that body was incorruptible and immortal, the blessed Cyril has shown in his discourse on the creation of man, speaking word for word as follows: «The body of Adam had been made from earth, but it was superior to death and corruption; for the Giver of life implanted life within it.» But the great Basil also, demonstrating this very same thing, said: «Having fashioned man, God granted him the enjoyment of eternal life.» In addition to the things mentioned, the most divine Barlaam is also found speaking thus to Joasaph: «God honored the man from the beginning with self-determination and immortality, and established him as king of all earthly things.» ^B But look, and do not pass over such sacred statements carelessly. For at the same time he was brought forth according to the image, and at the same time he was deemed worthy of self-determination and immortality by God. And how then shall we say he was a participant of both immortality and mortality? This is, as I believe, most illogical. For if we were able to conceive that He established him as king of earthly things, having honored him beforehand with immortality, we would not there mingle in mortality, nor would we conceive such illogical things regarding him who was made according to the image of God. But the golden-tongued John also demonstrates this same point, setting it forth word for word in his homily on the Hexaemeron: «Having created man, God wished him to have authority over all visible things. Therefore, He also granted him the essence of the soul, wishing him to be immortal into the perpetual. But since he slipped through sloth and transgressed the commandment given to him, He did not even then turn away from him completely, but deprived him of immortality, and having condemned him to death, He left him in almost the same authority.» ^C But when the stag casts off its horns, it hides itself, as if acting out of shame because it is naked. And when they begin to grow again, it comes forward once more, just as before. Thus also does the righteous man, having in some way stripped himself of duty and of virtues, hide himself from God, just as Adam once suffered in paradise when he saw himself naked due to his transgression. When, however, he has struggled and set himself straight, and has seen that the virtues have grown once more, then he is returned to God with boldness, showing himself a participant of his former liberty. Wishing to indicate this, David said: «Then I shall not be ashamed when I look upon all your commandments.» ^D And these are thus; others say that it is not out of shame for the loss of their horns that stags flee from their accustomed places, but that they are most of all providing for themselves. For there is a certain sense even in irrational animals, by which they have grasped the discernment of their own safety. The cuttlefish knows the trickery of the mist, and sometimes employs it for the hunting of prey. The hedgehog knows how to wrap its body in its claws. The hare knows how to send away the plots of hunters through the speed of its feet. The stag, having shed its horns, knows that its nature is weaker.

^A But here it is worth paying attention. For God did not merely desire to establish man as king of the things that are observed, but he also demonstrated that rule as completed in the very things themselves. For at that time he led all the animals to him, even though he was not ignorant of what was to come. Thus, all things, standing before him in a servile manner, received their designations from him. Indeed, in this way he reached him with the rational soul and honored him with immortality. For even though he was not ignorant of his impending transgression which would occur before long, still, since he does not wish to condemn him solely on the basis of intention, he fulfills his counsel for him in a manner befitting God, and, as was said before, imparts to him a rational soul, so that from this he might be immortal forever. But why did he make man the ruler of earthly things and immortal immediately? In order that we might learn from this that God, who made us, also rules over all the powers above, and that he is immortal, incorruptible, and indestructible. For it was for this reason that he, having taken dust beforehand, said: “Let us make man in our own image.” And Solomon, knowing this, said, “God did not make death, but created man into incorruptibility in the image of his own eternity.” ^B Yet, even if he did condemn man to death afterwards, he did not leave him without consolation for long. For he translates Enoch, and at that time he taught our mortal nature to await that immortality from which it fell because of the transgression. And hear what the great Athanasius says concerning these things in his discourse on the Assumption: “Death indeed entered through disobedience; yet God, loosening the sharpness of the threat, immediately caused a hope of immortality to rise for the human race, and snatches Enoch from the midst, and from this he taught our mortal nature that it should await borders of immortality.” These things are indeed confirmed also by the disciples of Christ, saying that the events concerning Enoch and Elijah clearly represent our own deliverance from destruction and eternal life. Pay attention, therefore: for Enoch, having received from God our deliverance from destruction and our immortality through that translation, taught our mortal nature, as has been said before, to await the borders of immortality. And these men spoke in this manner; but our own golden John showed more clearly that the first man possessed this deliverance from destruction, saying exactly as follows: “Enoch pleased God, and is translated. And behold the goodness of the Master. For having found a man who had achieved virtue, he did not deprive him of the dignity which he had bestowed upon the first-formed man before the violation of the commandment.” If this is so, what need is there to speak further? For if that first man possessed this deliverance from destruction, which Enoch, by being translated, taught that human nature should await, it is entirely evident ^C that man was produced by God at the beginning such as the divine oracles declare he will be when raised from the dead. Do not, therefore, disbelieve these things that are said. For look, the divine Anastasius of Sinai also, in his discourse on the resurrection, declares the same things most clearly.

and such indeed were the passions it discarded altogether after rising from the dead. Hence, moreover, the nakedness ^A in his discourse on the resurrection, makes the account concerning this clearer, saying: “Such is the body that has been resurrected from the dead, having fallen, as it was from the beginning, having cast off all that happened to it beforehand on account of sin.” Pay attention, then. For if it has been resurrected such as it was from the beginning, and that body which is being resurrected is acknowledged to have been resurrected in a state superior to death and corruption—and the great Paul confirms this saying, “For this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality”—it is altogether evident that even that body, I mean the one first created by God, was truly immortal and incorruptible, as we have already said many times. The divine Gregory of Nyssa demonstrates this very thing ^B when he is found elucidating the saying of Ecclesiastes, which runs as follows in his words: “What is that which has been? That very thing which shall be. And what is that which has been made? That very thing which shall be made.” For he says that man created by the hand of God was not what he now is on account of sin—namely, mutable and corruptible—but that this is what he was from the beginning, but rather that which shall be wrought later, that is to say, immutable and incorruptible. If, therefore, God created man in incorruption, according to the image of His own eternity, as Solomon says; if He displayed His own generosity by sharing with him an intellectual soul so that he might even be immortal for all time, as the golden-tongued one says; if God ^C granted man the enjoyment of eternal life from the beginning, as the great Basil says; if the first creation of Adam was incorruptible, as the divine Anastasius of Sinai says; if God gave man the dignity of being immortal and indestructible from the beginning, as the divine Andrew is found saying; if God, having honored man with free will and immortality, established him as king of all earthly things, as the blessed Barlaam says: how then shall we say that he was produced by God as both mortal and immortal at once? This is unacceptable, as I think, and highly so. And how indeed is it not unacceptable, when the great Gregory in theology does not allow us to imagine such things regarding the first man? For by saying that he was from the beginning in need of no covering or external garment, he showed ^D clearly that the first man created by God was clothed in the vesture of immortality. But to gainsay these things is not permitted. For either that body was subject to natural passions and was by confession corruptible, or it was superior to every kind of passion, as the discourse has already distinguished. And there is no need to doubt concerning incorruption; for it is evident that it was truly incorruptible, as it was not subject to corruption of any kind. Thus, then, beloved, the body of our Lord Jesus Christ is acknowledged to have been corruptible before the passion, since it was subject to natural passions, and incorruptible again after the passion and the resurrection; [alt-version omitted] regarding the immortality of the first man Adam, which those who err far from the truth—as many theologians and interpreters of sacred Scripture whom you consult have set forth—

and such passions; for it rose from the dead ^A entirely free from these. On this account, it leaped forth from the grave naked, having entirely left behind there the burial clothes; for as it had become incorruptible, as has been said, it had no need of any covering. But why is there need of many words? If that first Adam was at once mortal and immortal—if he was subject to natural passions, as is the opinion of the many—then it is absolutely necessary that our own condition hereafter should reach such a state, since we have our return towards that first Adam indeed. But it is not right to say such a thing about these matters, provided that the facts themselves are sufficient to persuade us, even before words. For if this human being, subject to corruption, after having been buried in the ground and putrefied, is raised from the dead incorruptible and immortal—and the blessed Paul confirms this teaching by saying of it: "It is sown in corruption, it is raised in incorruption"— it is entirely clear that that Adam before the sin was such starting from the beginning, namely, incorruptible and immortal. And do not marvel at this, if indeed seed cast into the ground is accustomed to produce exactly what it was before. For whether you call it a grain of wheat or barley or any other seed, it is by nature destined to return entirely to that from which it has clearly fallen. But do not consider what is said to be a myth. For see that the great ^B Athanasius, wishing to demonstrate that we were made corruptible from an incorruptible nature, and that we shall rise again as incorruptible from a corruptible one, used the example of the grain quite aptly, speaking thus to Antiochus: "Just as God created the ear of grain from the beginning in the grain, and when the ear was crushed the grain came to be, and again the grain being sown sprouts the ear, so man was created by God incorruptible; then, through disobedience, he was crushed and fell into corruption; but being sown through death and buried in the earth, he sprouts and becomes as he was, incorruptible from the beginning." And do not tell me: "If he was previously immortal, how did he subsequently fall into corruption and mortality?" Abandon the "how." It was God who said: "In the day that you eat of the tree, you shall die the death." And you ask, "How did a mortal come to be, who was immortal?" Cease asking the "how." The golden-tongued John, in his discourse on the exile of Adam, will solve this question for you, saying thus: "Adam transgressed the commandment; he ate of that from which he was told not to eat; and for this reason, he who was immortal became mortal." Abandon the "how," lest you be held by a greater difficulty regarding this mortal body: how, you say, will it rise immortal from the dead, if it is mortal and corruptible? For he who is in doubt about the former—how he who was immortal became mortal—will necessarily also have questions about this. Therefore, abandon the "how." Wherever God is, there place has no room

^A For God created man for incorruptibility; He appointed him ruler of all earthly things, and gave immortality to him, as has been discussed above. And he was to have it thus for ages, because divine gifts are irrevocable. But since He saw him sliding into sin, and from there falling away from that high and angelic conduct, for this reason He permits and death takes its place against him, because it was no longer advantageous from that point for immortality to be present in him. For if something of this sort had not happened, if there were not a concession given from thence for the sake of philanthropy, so that evil might not be immortal, the first Adam—who was created for incorruptibility according to the image of the eternity of God—would not have been approached by death; that body, which was previously superior ^B to corruption and death, would not have fallen subject to destruction. But if these things are so, how shall we say he was produced by God as both immortal and mortal? For even if he fell into death by not keeping the commandment given to him, nevertheless we shall all find this to be the end of the dispensation, as has already been said, if we choose to attend to the sequence of the Holy Scripture. For not when God was producing man, as was discussed above, did He speak to him then: "In the day you eat of the tree, you shall die the death," but long after his production. For after seating him as king, after conducting the animals to him, after receiving the conclusion of the divine counsel upon him, then to him did such a divine voice come; then indeed, then death also took place against him. And for what reason, and for whose sake? So that, he not having remained immortal after the transgression, evil might not also of necessity remain immortal with him. And that man was going to remain immortal after his sin, if there had not been some divine dispensation so that we might not also suffer immortal things according to the fallen angels, the divine Gregory of Nyssa gives us to understand for the time being. "Since," he says, "the first men came to be in the things that were forbidden and were stripped of that beatitude, He provided 'coats of skins'—that is, the mortality of the animals—for the nature created for immortality, as a matter of dispensation, so that evil might not be immortal." And well did this divine man say "as a matter of dispensation"; for God, being solicitous of us so that we might not sin immortally and so that we might not stay forever in this painful and wretched life, as also the golden-tongued one says, permits death to take place against the immortal, and in this way the immortal becomes mortal, and the incorruptible similarly becomes corruptible. And may the great Basil further persuade us, speaking thus about this matter:

^A "God did not hinder death, so that He might not preserve our infirmity as immortal. Death is, therefore, for our gain, and this punishment is given for our benefit, according to the great Gregory, who is great in theology. Wherefore it is not reasonable to be saddened by these things. For even if we return to the earth from whence we were taken, according to that curse which says, 'Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return,' yet from thence, as the golden-mouthed John says, we are taken up again, and from thence we are transformed for the better, and we become again such as we were before, that is to say, incorruptible and immortal. To doubt these things, therefore, is not right, especially since the divine Fathers say that the resurrection from the dead promises us nothing other than the restoration of those who have fallen to their ancient condition. And give heed, if you will, before all others to what the most divine Anastasius says concerning these things: 'And God made man; in the image of God He made him. This was the first creation, simple, unique, incorruptible; and the resurrection of the bodies looks towards this creation.' And why is there need to say much? The parable in the Gospels of the wandering sheep and similarly that of the lost drachma show forth entirely this very wandering and fall of man, and his restoration and recall. For on this account God bent the heavens and descended and became man, so that He might lead us who had fallen back to our ancient and first honor. For indeed, if this were not so, the prodigal son would not have heard after he returned, 'Put on him the first robe.' If, however, some say that Adam was indeed created immortal by God, but that he was potentially mortal, that is, that he was capable of falling into mortality if he were not to be a guardian of the commandment given to him, we accept their statement—for it seems acceptable, especially to those who do not wish to fathom the writings of the holy Fathers—but that he suffered at all, that is, that he was subject to any natural passion before the transgression, this we in no way admit. For how could we, when we find no one among the holy Fathers discussing such a thing concerning the first man? Rather, indeed, they say that he was free from passion, and superior to all bodily necessities. For immediately the most divine John Damascene said that the man before the transgression possessed extreme freedom from passion; for hunger and thirst, labor and sleep and sweat, as this divine man is found saying in his sixty-fourth chapter, entered into human life after the transgression. But also the divine Anastasius of Sinai, in his discourse on the Resurrection, said that these blameless passions followed upon our entry into evil along with the putting on of the tunic of skin. For this was not connatural to the rational nature, as it was to the ^B irrational, but he placed it upon him later, punishing him who was once in honor but…

did not understand, and from that point bringing him to a remembrance of the goods from which he fell. But even John, golden of tongue, setting forth the passionlessness of the first man, said: "Consider for me the abundance of blessedness, how those first-formed were above all bodily things, how they inhabited the earth just as the heaven, and being in a body, did not endure the things of bodies." For they needed neither roof, nor ceiling, nor garments, nor any other such thing. But also the theologian Gregory, saying that the man from the beginning did not need a covering or shelter, altogether signified the same things as the Golden-mouthed. For the body was subject neither to frosts nor to heats. For if any such affection had grieved him, he would have been in need of shelter and ^B covering by necessity. The divine man would not have thought that he suffered anything, had he possessed the thicker and mortal flesh, from which our suffering also proceeds, saying that Adam was clothed in the investing of the garment of skin. He showed from this that before such an investing, man was passionless, as having been clothed in a subtler flesh, immortal and incorruptible. But one must not be exasperated at these words. For according to John Chrysostom, that body was exempt from all corruption. For which reason, reason rightly called it incorruptible. And if it was incorruptible, it is clear that it was also immortal. For if diseases and deaths are accustomed to be brought on by both the excess and the deficiency of the four humors, just as it seems to the Golden-mouthed, and yet the body of Adam dwelt in passionlessness and was always in the same state (for it did not admit of any change similar to us, as being above all sufferings), it is entirely evident that it was also a participant in immortality, as the discourse has already previously shown. That man was above natural affections in that time, the great Basil also showed, passing through it word for word in his Ascetic works: "Just as if we were in the paradise of delight, we would not have needed the careful consideration and labor of agriculture, so if we were in passionlessness according to the grace in the creation before the fall, we would have needed nothing from the medical art for solace." If, therefore, man had the grace of passionlessness in the creation before the fall, how should we say that he fell into any natural ^D affection in the time of his passionlessness? But also the great Maximus used to say that these affections—sorrow, pleasure, desire, and all other such things which are present to human nature today—ran into man from the portion of the irrational; for since he was condemned to be likened to the irrational beasts according to birth, from thence he of necessity drew these affections to himself. For these were not co-created primarily with man, as this divine man said in his works to Thalassius, but through the fall from perfection, they crept into the more irrational part of nature that had grown on. If

these things are thus, how shall we say that the first man suffered anything at all in that very perfection? It has therefore been demonstrated from many things that before the transgression, man was not subject to any natural suffering, as he was not lacking in immortality by grace. If this is so, how was he suffering? For if he suffered, he would of necessity have had a mortal and corruptible nature. But the choir of the holy men already discussed prohibits us from thinking this way regarding these matters, and even more so does the synod that gathered in Carthage forbid it, saying in its one hundred and nineteenth canon: "If anyone says that Adam was created mortal by God and did not come into corruption after the sin, let him be anathema." For this reason, it has seemed to us neither seemly nor pious to bring forward here the theologian Gregory. For even if he seems to say that the man from the beginning was earthly in body and heavenly in soul, likewise temporal and immortal, visible and intelligible, midway between greatness and lowliness, spirit and flesh—the one that he might remain and glorify the benefactor, the other that he might suffer and, suffering, be reminded and disciplined, being proud of his greatness—we do not think thus about this, because we do not believe these divine sayings were spoken for the sake of the first man. For how could we, when we have heard the theologian himself elsewhere literally saying thus: "Since through the envy of the devil death entered the world and cheated man through deceit, for this reason God, becoming man, is affected by our suffering." But I ask that you pay attention here. For if death cheated man, as the Theologian says, through deceit, it is patent that this divine man considered man to have been immortal in body before the deceit. And if this is so, how did he say: "that he might suffer and, suffering, be reminded and disciplined"? For that which is immortal is not of such a nature as to be able to suffer in any way. And what need is there of many words? If man was subject to passions before the sin, he was of necessity mutable; and if that one was mutable, it is evident that he was also mortal. And if he was mortal from the beginning, then corruption and death are not from disobedience. But I do not think anyone possessed of reason would say this. For how could they, since the aforementioned holy synod subjects those who think thus to anathema? Furthermore, if he thought Adam was temporal before the transgression, how did he say later that he received death as a gain? For he says that Adam was permitted to fall into death so that evil might not be immortal. But it is worth paying attention here as well. For it appears that before the sin man was immortal, since how was he to remain immortal

^A if, after the deception, man was intended to live in immortality, just as he was beforehand? The immortal being was permitted, as has been said before, to fall into death, so that the evil might not be immortal—which the Theologian also termed a gain. But do not be troubled on this account. For if Adam was mortal even before the transgression, and mortal also after the transgression, when then did he receive the penalty of death? And when did he clothe himself in coats of skin? It is evident, therefore, that in discussing the common nature of men, he was saying that man is temporary according to the body, but immortal according to the soul. For according to this, he also said that he suffers for the sake of admonition and instruction; since how else would that body have been subject to passions, a body which had no need of a covering, and was hence known to be impassible? To argue, therefore, any further is not reasonable. For if Adam was temporary from the beginning, if he existed mortal before the sin, then the great Paul would not have said: "The wages of sin is death" (Rom. VI, 23). For he showed thereby that before sin, man was immortal. And if this is so, then such a one was also superior to all physical needs. ^B It is evident from this that from the beginning man was also untasting of sensory food. For even if God permitted Adam to [eat], yet it does not follow that food there was sensory and fleeting. And the discourse will show you this more clearly as it proceeds. For, as the great Athanasius says to Antiochus, either the plants in Paradise were incorruptible, and how were they cut by the teeth? How were they eaten? For that which is incorruptible can be neither cut nor eaten, as some suspect; and how did Adam use them for food? Let them provide an answer to these things. For did the body that he possessed at that time have the capacity for respiration ^C and was it subject to corruption and flux, so that he was of necessity hungry? Or did it remain without the capacity for respiration, as being untouched by flux and incorruptible? And what was it that compelled it to partake of sensory food? But they would not have anything to say, if the one made according to the image of God was indeed superior to bodily needs, as he of the golden tongue says; for hunger and thirst and fatigue and sleep and pain and corruption, as has been said before, entered into human life after the transgression. See, therefore, with understanding, and do not foolishly open your ears to those who tell other things from here and there, turn away ^D

^A from them and count them as nothing; reject them, just as we ourselves did a little while ago. For we found and read many such things, and we relegated them to the category of myths, because we recognized that they fall quite far from the orthodox mindset of the Fathers. Do not, therefore, suppose that there was a liquid food in Paradise, and do not attend to the scriptural expressions in such a jejune way, since the holy Scripture ^B often teaches other things through other things. Of such a kind is that which says, "And God formed man, taking dust from the earth," and that which says, "And He breathed into his face the breath of life," and that which says, "And God walked in Paradise in the evening." For these things are wholly unsuitable to the bodiless God; yet the holy Scripture says these things, accommodating itself to our weaknesses. For if we do not grant this, ^C many absurdities will follow for us. For we shall attribute a mouth to Him, and hands, and feet, and all such things: for if He did not have hands, how did He fashion man? If He did not have a mouth, how did He breathe into his face? If He did not have feet, why does Scripture say He was walking in Paradise in the evening? But this is not so, it is not so; for the choir of the holy Fathers arrived to go over these divine utterances and to teach us how one must receive them, and not to let ourselves be dragged along by our own will, ^D jumping off cliffs and being carried far away from the straight path.

On the tree of knowledge

Thus, therefore, it is right for you to think concerning that plant, that is to say, the tree of knowledge, even if we do have some disagreement occurring on these points. For the most divine Isidore of Pelusium is found straightaway discussing this matter as follows: Christ curses the fig tree, so that He might show the Jews that He is also able to inflict punishment. But at the same time some secret doctrine is entwined with this, which has circulated to us from wise elders, that this was the tree of the transgression, of which the transgressors also used the leaves for a covering. And it was cursed by Christ out of philanthropy, so that it might no longer bear the cause of sin. And the wise Joannes Damascenus, most learned in divine matters, called the divine knowledge the food of Paradise. For God gives Adam authority over all the plants in Paradise, not indeed for the sake of food, but so that he might be led from them back to the Creator Himself; for from the magnitude and beauty of (the) creatures, as Solomon says, their Creator is accustomed to be recognized. And see how this divine Joannes interprets the things concerning Paradise, and what he says about them. "Of every tree that is in Paradise, you shall eat." That is, I say, "By means of all creatures, ascend to Me the Creator, and pluck one fruit from all, Me who am truly the life. Let all things bear life for you, and let your existence be a participation in Me." And these things he has handed down.

Thus these men; but the most divine Gregory of Nyssa states word for word that we are persuaded that that tree which was forbidden for food was neither a fig tree, as some say, nor any other fruit-bearing tree. "For although," he says, "the visionary Moses seems to speak here of sensory food, I, hearing the holy Scriptures, understand not only bodily food, but I know of another nourishment whose enjoyment extends only to the soul." For Wisdom exhorts those who hunger: "Eat my bread, and drink the wine which I have mixed for you." And the Lord, also signifying the salvation of the Samaritans, said: "I have food to eat which you do not know of," and elsewhere: "Let him who thirsts come to me and drink." Therefore, it is fitting to conceive of a certain fruit worthy of the plantation in Eden (for Eden is interpreted as 'delight') and not to doubt that7man was nourished through this, and one should not by any means conceive of this transitory and fleeting food during [his] existence in paradise.

In this way, then, the most divine Anastasius also wills that that food be intellectual, and not sensory and carnal. For if the divine texts signified such food, those who tasted of it would have died carnally; but since they sinned intellectually, they immediately receive the death of the soul. In this way, also, the theologian Gregory said that that plant, namely the tree of knowledge, was contemplation—that is, a certain more perfect knowledge, to which it is not safe for those with an overly greedy desire to aspire. ^A Observe, therefore. For it has been shown from many things that Adam was not in need of sensory food in paradise; for being created by God as immortal, he was in need of nothing. And what need is there to say much? If man will live in the resurrection according to the likeness of the angels ("For they shall all be, he says, as the angels of God"), and the grace of the resurrection is nothing else, according to the divine Fathers, than the restoration of those who have fallen to their ancient [state], it is entirely clear that before the transgression, Adam had an angelic life, using neither food nor drink, as has been said, because nothing of the sort is observed even among the angels themselves. ^B Do not, therefore, suppose that man in paradise was filled with sensory food, because he had no need of it there, by reason of the apathy that was present in him at that time.

But it was not fitting to doubt these things. For since these natural passions—I mean hunger and thirst, labor, sleep, pain, grief, and the rest—entered into human life after the transgression, as the discourse has already shown, it is entirely evident that before the sin, man did not have [the necessity] compelling him to partake of sensory food. And what need is there to speak at length? If man were in need of nourishment from the beginning, as some have supposed, he would also have been hungry, by necessity, and shivering, and sleeping. If he were such a one, it is entirely clear that he was mortal from the beginning and corruptible; for it is impossible, as John Damascene says, for that which is ^C corruptible to remain...

^A partaker of sensory nourishment. But let those people be, for the recorded holy synod in no way permits us to think this way concerning the first man. For it speaks as follows, word for word: "If anyone says that Adam was created mortal by God, and did not pass into corruption after the sin, let him be anathema." And concerning these matters, thus it is. ^B Nevertheless, such a plant is planted in Paradise, from which Adam was forbidden to eat. For what reason? So that he might acknowledge from this the bestower of so many good things and know that he himself is under a Master, as he of the golden tongue says, and so that he might not suffer from arrogance that which the fallen Lucifer suffered, being unable to bear the splendor bestowed upon him. But what, then, are the things that follow? Adam transgresses the commandment, he touches the plant, he is immediately made naked, he falls into corruption, he is cast out of Paradise, he knows Eve, and he begets three sons: Cain, Abel, and Seth. John speaks of the goodness of God. But take heed, beloved, and do not be snatched away by those who say such things: "If God knew that Adam was going to transgress the commandment and therefore fall out of ^C Paradise, why on earth did He bring him forth? For it was necessary either not to bring him forth, or, once brought forth, to prevent him from that forbidden eating." Let such people be, if they think such things, and rather be persuaded by the most divine Gregory of Nyssa, saying thus: "That the human condition would turn aside from the good was not unknown to God, who knows all things. Yet He did not prevent it; for just as He foresaw the turning aside, so He also perceived its recall back to the good." What, then? Was it better not to bring our nature into existence at all, since He foresaw that man would miss the good, or to call him back again through repentance to the original grace after he had been brought forth and had fallen ill? The latter, by all means. Furthermore, by reason of His own goodness, God desired to bring forth the human race, and it is universally admitted that He foresaw his future swerving. If, therefore, He had not brought forth man for this reason, our wickedness would have conquered, as the Damascene says; for God does all things well, whatever He does, yet each of us turns toward the good or the evil by our own choice. For even if the Lord says: "It would have been better for that man if he had not been born," ^D He was not speaking to disparage His own creation, but rather because of the wickedness that had come upon His creature from his own choice. For the sluggishness of his own judgment rendered the Creator’s benevolence useless to him, just as it is possible to see in our own case. And pay heed, if you wish, to what is said. A king, wishing to bestow a favor upon one of his subjects...

^A by entrusting to him a position of the greatest authority. And he, immediately looking up to the height of this authority, and being unable to bear it, becomes puffed up in his own mind; he can neither endure to remain in peace, nor does he, but conjures up things beyond his station, employs tyranny, and proceeds to rebellion. What is to be done in this case? The king is not a little vexed at the matter; he is dismayed. What is this? He says, "How has this ungrateful man turned the glory that came to him into disgrace?" And he desires not to destroy the ingrate, but yet he cannot neglect the tyranny. Therefore, he subdues the deserter, strips him of his dignity, subjects him to severe punishments, and sometimes even removes him from his present life. It would have been more advantageous for him not to have received authority from the king at all, if he were to be in danger of suffering such things through his own madness. Pay attention, therefore, beloved, and do not be carried away with those who attempt to scrutinize the divine economies ^B. For the benevolence of God is not the cause of our evils, but rather our own sloth and the movement of our will toward the worse. But neither was it fitting to restrain man when he attempted to eat of the plant. For how, since he was endowed with free will? For if God had intended to restrain man when He saw him wandering far from the straight path, where then would be the reason present in him? And where would be the free will, if it is the property of irrational nature to be led and carried hither and thither without choice? If man had been prevented from sinning, where then would be virtue? And where would be the crowns given on its account? And on what grounds would the kingdom of heaven be set before him as a prize, if he were not to become a partaker of the good through zeal, effort, and good choice? He ought not to have been restrained, lest the rational man be numbered among the irrational ^C, inasmuch as he did not possess the grace of free will. On this matter, the great Basil also says: "He who asks why God did not make us sinless, chooses nothing other than to prefer irrational nature to rational, and the immovable and unmotivated to that which is capable of choice and action." Adam is therefore left to himself, he touches [the fruit of] the plant, he is bared, and forthwith becomes an exile from paradise. What follows from these things? The eyes of his soul are opened, and from there he sees clearly what a good thing the keeping of the commandment is, and, conversely, how great an evil the transgression of it is. For that plant, as Josephus and Nemesius, the bishop of Emesa, say, did not possess such a nature as to instill in those who touched it the wisdom to know good and evil. For if the Holy Scripture calls it the tree of knowledge, it is not for this reason that it had such

^A a nature as to instill in those who touched it the wisdom to know good and evil; but because the transgression of the commandment took place in it, and from that point on the knowledge of sin and shame entered in, for this reason it received this appellation. It is a custom of Holy Scripture to assign names based on subsequent events. And listen to what the golden-mouthed John says regarding these things: "A single spring in the desert was called the water of contention, not because it had such a nature as immediately to turn those who drew from it into contention—for if this were so, Moses himself, having drunk from it, would have contended with God. Just as that spring, therefore, was called the water of contention not because of its own nature, but because of the disobedience of the people which occurred there toward God, so too let us say that that plant ^B did not possess such a power. But because it had become the knowledge of good and evil—not that it possessed knowledge, but that everyone who sins comes to the knowledge of understanding that it is good to obey, and evil to transgress. Whence it also received such an appellation, as we have said, from the events that occurred in it afterward.

But after Adam had fallen into corruption and mortality after the transgression, God said: "Behold, Adam has become as one of us." And pay attention, beloved. Some have said that God spoke this word ironically; thinking that Adam, having conceived a desire for deification, had miserably fallen from the good things of which he was a participant, and the immortal had become mortal. Others have understood such a ^C statement by way of anticipation, according to the idiom of Scripture, saying, "Behold, Adam has become as one of us," that is, in the end of time, a man shall become one of us, similar to Adam. This, as we have said, is spoken by anticipation according to the idiom of Scripture, which is accustomed to declare those things that are about to come to pass as if they were already present or happened, just as we find it stated even regarding our first mother. For even though she had not yet been brought forth, it says that "God made man, and male and female he made them," although the most divine Anastasius understood such a divine statement in another sense. For in his discourse concerning the resurrection, he is found saying these things ^D regarding these: "Double is the construction of our nature, the one conformed toward the Divine, and the one divided toward this difference of forms that was constructed last." And not these things only, but this divine man also brings in Holy Scripture, so that this doctrine might be made clearer. For he says, "And God made man; according to the image of God he made him." This is the first creation, simple, uniform, solitary, not having any difference. For "according to the image of God he made him." But the second creation: "Male and female he made them." That these things are thus, is evident from the words themselves. There, he said "him"—"according to the image of God he made him"; but here he said "them"—"male and female he made them." And pay attention. Since Holy Scripture, having anticipated, said, "according to the image of God he made

CHAPTER: ON THE TWO CREATIONS OF MAN

his formulation, so to speak, added: "male and female he made them," it clearly showed that the former formation was one thing, and this latter is another; the one representing the generosity of the Creator (for "according to the image of God he made him"), the other indicating the difference of forms ("male and female he made them"). This argument may seem burdensome, but only to those who follow their own reasoning. For to those who search the sacred writings of the Fathers, it is worthy of all acceptance, because it is also clear. And hear what divine Anastasius, wise in spiritual things, says. For he added the following to what was said before, wishing to clarify from many things what was being spoken: "The second creation is the formation of the male and the female added to the creature, the one which had been made according to the first, namely according to the image of God, in which there was no difference of forms, because in the divine and blessed image no such thing is conceived." If these things are so, it is reasonable to say that out of foreknowledge God gave such a construction to Adam from the beginning, if indeed such a difference of forms belongs to the second creation, which He necessarily brought in after the first, as has been said; for He was not ignorant of what would happen. And pay attention, if you will, to John of Damascus speaking about the first man: "Since the God who knows the future knew that he would fall into transgression and would be subject to corruption, for this reason He brings forth the female from him." So that if he had not fallen from the angelic life, this difference of forms would not have been added, because he who was made according to the image of God would not have needed it for the continuation of the race by succession, since he was destined to be multiplied like the angels, as has been discussed above. But we must return to the discourse, even if ^B again. Regarding the serpent. The divine sentence toward the serpent after the transgression: "Upon thy breast and belly thou shalt go." Since thou hast deceived the heart and persuaded the belly to take food, "upon thy breast and belly thou shalt go." For He does not declare that the serpent will now walk upon its belly as if it had possessed feet before, as Josephus and the so-called "Little Genesis" say. But since, according to John the Gold-tongued [Chrysostom], it had from its upright posture such an opportunity, so that it could approach Eve’s ear and discourse about such things, it was most justly condemned to drag itself upon the ground. For even if it had been fashioned footless from the beginning, still, by certain circles of coils beneath, it was raised up and moved alonged upon its extended chest. Hence even now the serpent, often angered, raises itself and runs, coiling in circles. And having proceeded as far as to show the memory of its ancient gait, it is again cast down by the law of the sentence. See also, with understanding, that it is so burdensome ^C for someone to be by himself—

and that it is equally grave to impel others toward sin as it is to commit the sin oneself. Therefore, the punishment of the serpent was heavier than that of Eve, and that of Eve heavier than that of Adam, because Eve deceived Adam, and the serpent deceived Eve. ^A Based on this account, the Manichaeans thought that brute beasts also possess a rational soul. For if this were not so, they say, God would not have punished the serpent, nor would he have subjected it to a curse. But this is not so, it is not. And this is evident from what the prophet David says: ^B "Do not be like the horse and the mule, which have no understanding." * Otherwise, if they think that brute beasts participate in a soul endowed with intelligence because the serpent was punished, there is absolutely nothing to prevent this same opinion from applying to trees as well, since Christ subjected the fig tree to a curse when, being hungry, he found no fruit upon it. God therefore casts the serpent to the ground so that, even if one does not see what happened to the devil, by seeing the serpent—which, as the Golden-mouthed says, once stood erect—perpetually crawling, one may receive a reminder that if the minister of wickedness is punished to such a degree, what must one say regarding the prime author? God punishes the serpent by doing something similar to what ^C a loving father does. For he does not only punish the murderer of his Son, but he also shatters and hacks into many pieces the very instrument of the murder. "He shall watch your head." You will no longer, he says, be bold, O serpent, to lay snares for men as you did before, but you will have such fear of men that even at the sound of them walking you will hide yourself in holes. The great Macarius, for his part, says in his Epistles regarding the devil that as soon as he fell he was to be delivered to Gehenna, but that God permitted him to war against men so that the soldiers of Christ might be revealed; ^D for if an adversary were not present, the genuine soldiers of the King would not be revealed. Hence, as one more condemned, he will find a more severe punishment. The great Basil, in his interpretation of the prophet Isaiah, also discusses the following concerning the devil: Perhaps even before man was created, a place for repentance was left for the devil, and the proud one—even if it was an older affliction—could have restored himself to his original state through repentance, having applied the remedy to himself. But from the time of the creation of the world and of paradise, and man began to exist within it, and the commandment and the envy of the devil and the murder of him who was honored arrived, the place of repentance was locked away from him. For if Esau did not find a place for repentance having sold his birthright, what place of repentance is left for him who killed the one formed by God and brought death upon him? But even the great apostle Paul in his epistles...

those who are utterly despaired of to conversion, says this verbatim: “If God received Manasseh through repentance, I dare to say that He would also receive the devil, if he repented with his whole heart.” He did well to say "I dare to say," for behold, John of Damascus does not allow repentance to the devil. He says, in fact, that what death is for men, the fall is for angels; for after the fall there is no repentance for them, just as there is not for men after death. And indeed, repentance was not granted to the fallen angels, as Nemesius says, because their nature is incorporeal; for man obtained repentance because of the weakness of the body. But this statement, so far as it concerns Adam, is in my view not worthy of acceptance. For Adam was not found to be a transgressor of the commandment having been defeated by bodily desires (away with the insanity of Origen), since these had no place in him before the transgression. And why is there need of many words? Adam himself, having been cast out of paradise and having sat opposite it, spent his whole life lamenting. ^B Because of this, God is softened, and does everything and suffers everything for him. But the devil, once fallen, not only did not lament, but also raged against the creature of God, and slandered God Himself to Adam. Consequently, for one so disposed after his sin, to obtain repentance is utterly impossible. Hear also what Theodoret says in his *Therapeutic* about this. The devil is said to have fallen having been puffed up with pride, and then, incited by a kind of frenzy, he waged war against men, who were honored as the image of God. But the Creator of all protected the human race, commanding the angels to oversee them, so that he might not, by using force and tyranny and attacking invisibly, destroy those whom he hated out of envy. Therefore, this envy, and especially his pride and madness (for even now there are under him principalities and powers, as Paul says), and besides these, the despair (for if this were not so, they would not have said, “Why have you come to torment us before the time?”), do not allow the apostate to repent.

Concerning the apostate.

Beyond what has been said, I want you to know this also: that this apostate devil was the leader among the angelic powers, having been created good by God and bearing no trace of vice or wickedness in himself. For all things that God made were good, and very good. And God made nothing evil. For evil is nothing else than a withdrawal from the good, just as darkness is nothing else than the deprivation of light. Therefore, the discourse said well:

^A of non-beings. For if good things are said to have been created by God, these entirely exist. But evil, since it was not created by God, would not even exist. Consequently, God is not the author of evil, since, as we have said, He is not the author of non-beings; and it is said that evil is nothing, since it is insubstantial and does not subsist by itself.

^B That God is not the author of evil. He is not the same. Such a one, then—that is to say, good—having been created by God, the devil was entrusted by Him with the guardianship of the terrestrial order and of the earth. But not bearing the illumination and the honor which God had granted him, he turned from that which is according to nature to that which is against nature, and he was lifted up against the God who had created him; for he said: “I will set my throne upon the clouds, and I will be like the Most High.” Hence it is that, according to the voice of the Lord, he fell from heaven to earth like lightning. And a boundless multitude of the angels ranked under him was torn away and fell with him. ^C This the prophet Isaiah also showed, saying thus: “How has Lucifer, the one rising in the morning, fallen, and been broken to the ground!” He called him Lucifer on account of the brightness he had received from God. Accordingly, this has also been distinguished by Gregory the Theologian. For he said he was Lucifer because of the brightness, and darkness because of the pride [he both became and is called]. From that time, the unclean demons undertook the war against us. For they do not endure to see humans striving to ascend thither whence they themselves, with evil counsel, fell, as the great Basil says. For since they are receptacles of every wickedness, ^D they also received the disease of envy. For the devil was not created by God as our enemy; but he wars against us out of jealousy. For seeing himself cast down from the angels, he could not bear to behold the earthly one being exalted to the dignity of the angels through progress. And there is one essence among the angels and the demons, but not the same choice—just as, in the case of good and wicked men, one can see that the nature is indeed one among them, but not the judgment and the will.

And the orthodox thinking of the Church holds to this manner. But the sages of the Greeks, Porphyry and Iamblichus, say that the demons differ according to their essence, and that some of them are irrational and material, and that they fall upon us not as ill-disposed, but as our chastisers. But they also say that they foresee and know the future, though not all of them; for they claim that the demons who have been allotted the higher regions speak the truth entirely, while those who have been consigned to Tartarus are liars, and those who are more terrestrial and in the middle are oblique and ambiguous. But

the souls of the others, some vigilant, others irritable, others mild; others strong, others timid: to these 74 add those which are of that same kind. Nor are these things to be taken by you as fables. For that excellent man, Anastasius Sinaites, says that God is not the author of such things, but rather nature itself and the concurrence of the four elements. For if there is found an abundance of the hot element at the time of the conception of the fetus, the being that is then generated becomes of a hot temperament. If the element of cold ^B is greater, the fetus is born cold. For this reason either irritable or mild, strong or timid men are born. Look here at the boar with the stag; the former is ready for battle because of heat, while the latter flees from the battle because of the timidity it has from the cold. If the dry element prevails, the person born is sober and vigilant. Upon which a certain ancient philosopher, Heraclitus, said that the soul was drier and therefore wiser; he calls the substance of the brain by the words he uses. But if the moist element prevails, it makes the person sluggish and dull. According to these things, then, those who are mild by nature are not to be judged by the divine Fathers as possessing the virtues of prudence and temperance, but as having a certain physical advantage over others. And mark what the great Basil says to this: ^C "I know many who are by nature averse to having intercourse with women. But we shall not call them temperate; by no means; for temperance is a certain kind of continence, by which we conquer the pleasures that fight against us." And so much for these things.

On "Let us make man."

Why did God, when creating man, not take clay, but the finest dust; and at the same time by this [act] tempering our breath, and at the same time giving thereby the hope of the resurrection? For because the living being was destined to die and to arrive at [the state of] being earth, He provides the hope of the resurrection in the very act of creation. He takes dust from the earth, so that when you see the ^D dust in the tomb, you may know that He who formed that one will also resurrect this one. But for what reason does He fashion the human being as a double [creature], of soul, [that is,] intellectual, and of body; so that he might be a bond of the intelligible world and the sensible one? For because these two worlds are separate in their essence, the creator introduces the human being not to be at variance [with them], but places him as a double living being in the world, so that from this [he] might be a creator of things above and an announcer of things below.

"Let us make man according to our image." Why did the Scripture call the human being a living creature composed of body and soul? "Man," it says, [is named] by the Hebrew language. And because God proceeds from one man to fill the ends of the inhabited world with human bodies, [just as] one lamp lights up so many lamps, for this reason He called this living creature "man," that is, fire. For the other

^A parts as well, as for example, if you take a clod of earth, it remains as it is. If you take water by a certain measure, it remains the same water and receives no addition. If you fill a skin with air, you cannot fill it from another, unless that one is exhausted. But fire does not remain as it is, but it becomes greater as it acquires material. In the same way, if you light many other lamps from one lamp, it is not exhausted. Therefore, the name was rightly given to him, just as for the same reason He called Adam God. For because he was to be completed by the four climates, such a name was imposed upon him. And look at the letters of such a name. For the four climates indicate: Alpha, the East (Anatole); Delta, the West (Dysis); Alpha, the North (Arktos); Mu, the South (Mesembría). Rightly, therefore, this animal was called Adam and man — from him, as has been said before, the four climates have been completed. For Scripture says: "And God planted a paradise in Eden towards the East." ^B Why toward the east rather than another climate did He plant the paradise? The beginning of the course of the luminaries, and the dwelling place of men, He wished to be there. Besides, signifying what was to come, He placed the man in the paradise towards the east; to show that, just as the luminaries rise towards the east and set towards the west, so also [man] must run from life to death and set according to the pattern of the luminaries, and take another rising again from the dead. "Adam ran to the west, he set in the grave. Christ came, and He caused the one who set to rise again." Therefore the prophet says: "Behold the man, whose name is the Rising."

You must also know this, that the river which flows out of the paradise is divided into four sources, that is, fountains, from which the four rivers originate. And if these four rivers have their beginning from one source, why is the quality of their water not one? Why is the quality not the same? It is because the quality of the places of the earth through which they flow makes them participants of it; so that it happens that they are as different in taste as in quality. Look at the water itself for me. It has the same nature and the same quality. But if you cast wormwood into it, it results in one quality; if anise, another; if rue, another. God likewise, with ^D a certain counsel, wished these rivers to originate and to be perceived from 76 subterranean sources, so that those who follow them might not occupy the paradise.

Among other things, beloved son, know also this, that you might ask why Moses, clearly distinguishing all things in the order of the heaven and the earth, seems nowhere to have made mention of the creation of the angels. Here, consider those whom Moses was instructing, that they were not sufficiently confirmed [in the faith]. For had it not been for that, they would not have worshipped the image of the calf after seeing so many miracles. Now, when they were so relaxed in their discipline, he did not mention them, lest those ^C who were easily led astray should think that the angels, too, were gods. But he did not speak of the angels, lest they should be worshipped alongside God. He mentioned only the things that they could see, so that they might not worship the creation instead of the Creator.

Concerning leather tunics.

^A For in this matter, the great Maximus also, in his writings to Thalassius, said that these passions—namely, pleasure, pain, desire, and all the rest—were not primarily created with the nature of men, but that, through the fall from perfection, they entered in, attaching themselves to the more irrational part of the nature. Through these, instead of the divine and blessed image, immediately upon the transgression, the likeness of irrational beasts became transparent and evident in man. For it was necessary, with the dignity of reason being covered over by the marks of the irrational that he had willfully drawn to himself, that the nature of men should be justly punished, God wisely bringing man to a consciousness of his rational greatness.

Indeed, God did not of necessity bind us after the transgression to these desires, through which we are carried away toward eating, drinking, and sexual pleasures; for from this source, in our generated bodies, comes the fact of being born and nourished and continuing for as long as each one’s constitution of body admits. For since it is composed of four elements, it possesses by necessity the dissolution that follows. For composition is the beginning of decomposition, as the Theologian Gregory says. It is dissolved, therefore, in some more quickly, and in others more slowly. And be persuaded by the great Cyril, who says: "God permitted each one after the fall to complete his own life as the temperament of each might happen to be." For this reason nature has guarded the constituent parts of our life—that is, the heart, the brain, the liver, and whatever else is of such a kind—with solid bones on all sides, so that, by being injured through any chance occurrences, death might not thus readily follow.

However, He mingled pleasure with these desires like a certain bait, so that we might naturally be drawn along by it. For if this were not so, we would not rush toward eating and drinking; we would not be completely devoted to sexual pleasures. And if not for this, the human race would perhaps have necessarily perished. For this reason, also, the seed, being as it were a residue, urges and troubles and compels the creature to hasten to its discharge, God having permitted this, too, in a manner, for the sake of the preservation of the race. ^B Manes and Valentinus, failing to understand these things, as it seems, said that it was a creation of the devil, and that it was ignited by him and carried off toward base practices. Yet God did not leave us to be entirely prone toward unions, nor did He allow us to live without perception like the irrational creatures. For He joined unpleasantness to pleasure and made it a mixture, so that from this [pleasure] we are drawn toward the increase of the race, but from that [unpleasantness] we castigate ourselves, remember what was before, and cry out greatly against the sin for which we were compared to the foolish beasts.

^A Since they have received that blessing with the others? For thus we read written in the Sacred Scriptures: "And God saw everything that He had made, and behold, it was very good." If, therefore, the pig as a thing created by God was good, why was it afterwards made unclean? From all of which it can be clearly understood that God, wishing to correct the inclination of the Israelites to vice, promulgated laws of this kind and employed remedies of this sort. For the same reason, in the time of Noah, He instituted a division of animals. For because He foresaw that humans would deflect toward the foolish worship of idols, He distinguished the animals with sound judgment, as we have said, into those which are clean and those which are unclean. For what reason, I ask? Namely, that by partly living on those which are regarded as clean, and partly avoiding others as unclean, they might not venerate either as a god. For otherwise He would not have called those things unclean which, with others, had received a common blessing from God at the beginning of things. And truly, that the division of animals made at that time proceeded from the counsel of God, who humbled Himself for our sake, Paul also shows with these words: "Every creature of God is good, if it be received with thanksgiving." The same is confirmed even more by that voice of God, by which He called the greatest of the apostles, Peter, at the time when he caught sight of the sheet let down from heaven: "Rise, Peter, kill and eat." Likewise: "What God has cleansed, do not call common." ^B Nor indeed should it seem strange to you that even now certain things are held as unclean, for example, the wolf, the lion, the panther. For that great Basil explained and illustrated these matters in his *Ascetica*—which books contain the rationale for the exercises of piety—in this manner: "Just as among vegetables we separate what is harmful from that which is suitable to our nature, so also among meats we distinguish those things which are harmful from the useful. For hemlock is spoken of under the title of herbs, just as the flesh of vultures is counted among meats. Yet no one of sound mind would eat henbane, nor would he taste dog's meat, unless perhaps some great necessity urges; and if this happens, he who eats in this fashion does not sin." Wherefore you should know that we deliberately avoid harmful things, and we eat those animals which are of good juice and afford useful nourishment, but shrink from others which might perhaps bring us inconvenient health or some other unpleasantness if they were eaten. Those early Fathers indeed prescribed certain laws for us in this regard, that they might set a limit to our wantonness and pleasure. And let this much be said concerning these things. ^C Since, however, I am well acquainted with your zeal for learning, it will be worth the effort if I make mention of some narratives from the Book of Judith. Nabuchodonosor, because other nations had not brought him aid when he was waging war against Arphaxad, dispatched his general, Holofernes, against all the earth, and called himself the great king and lord of the whole world. Having received this command, Holofernes moved his troops against the Jews. Achior the Ammonite warned him to this effect: if there were any transgression of that nation by which they had offended God, they would do rightly if they invaded that region, since ^D

^A nonetheless, the order of the disciples also contains them, just as those who receive divine illuminations from the first powers and in turn explain them to the angels. Finally, the word "angel" contains the signification of those who announce divine things.

The word therefore indicated that while the first orders receive illuminations directly from God, the second receive them from the first, and the third from the second, and so on. That there is some distinction among the heavenly powers, and that they have their station, order, and knowledge according to their nature, the most divine Cyril also pointed out in his book *Thesaurus*, saying thus: “Every nature that shares in reason has a certain measure of its knowledge, so that it is believed that one thing exists in the angels and another, greater, in the archangels, and still another, one that surpasses these, in the higher powers.” ^B And John of Damascus also speaks of them as follows: “The heavenly powers differ from one another in illumination and in station, whether they are those possessing the station of illumination, or those participating in the station of illumination and illuminating others because of the excellence of their order and nature.” It is clear, then, as was also mentioned above, that those who surpass impart the illumination and knowledge to those who are subordinate.

Furthermore, the same author adds to what has been said that these heavenly powers also guard parts of the earth and preside over nations, just as they were ordained by the Creator. ^C That this is so, the most holy Patriarch Germanus also makes clear in his discourse. For in his homily on the Falling Asleep of the Mother of God, he says these things regarding this matter: “At the time when the races of men were established, angels were appointed to be the guardians of their lives. For He set, he says, the bounds of the nations according to the number of the angels of God, and the angel of the Lord encamps round about those who fear Him. When men inclined toward idolatry and departed from Him, they also departed from the angels. But when the all-blameless one later brought forth at the time, they were gathered again in heaven and on earth, and a harmonious polity was formed of angels and men, and one doxology.” ^D Gold-mouthed John also speaks of the angels in this way. For he says that the prophet Daniel calls the angels a great thing, suggesting that they had been ordered by God to take charge of the nations, and that one of them looks over the Persians, while the archangel Michael guards the people of the circumcision—not out of a fit of passion, but out of a certain divine and ineffable reason—for he does not serve the Jews but forces the Persians, as if despising the command of God, to not struggle against His will, but rather to yield to freedom, saying: “Cease, prince of the Persians; for God…”

has indeed punished those who were sinning, but toward those who have turned back, He is not turned away.”

^{A B} Regarding the fact that a divine angel stands by each of the faithful for their protection, the great Basil has taught this among others. Just as he says that bees are driven away by smoke and the stench of the dove is repelled, so too is the angel who guards our life separated from us by many tears and by the stench of sin. The same is pointed out by Theodoret in his *Therapeutica*. For he uses these words there: “The devil is said to have fallen from pride, and to have subsequently raged in divine madness against men, and to have undertaken this war against them. For this reason, the Maker of things, by the inspection and guardianship of angels, shelters the human race, so that he might not, by using force and tyranny, attack them invisibly, whom he hated out of envy, without any fear on their part, and destroy them.” That this is indeed the case, and that each of the faithful possesses an angel as a guardian, is explained in the Gospel according to Matthew in these small words: “See that you do not despise one of these little ones; for their angels always behold the face of My Father who is in heaven.” And let these things be indicated regarding this.

Moreover, it is inquired by some whether these intellectual powers of heaven and earth were created after the world was made. And Theodoret indeed, with Gennadius, asserts that this world visible to the eyes was produced before the invisible natures. For since the angels are circumscribed by certain limits, it was fitting, they say, that there should be some place that contained them, so that from there they might be enclosed in it. But the rest of the body of the Fathers does not seem to accept this. What the great Basil says in his book on the works of the six days of the world, hear: “There was a certain state and condition of the ancient origin of the world, ^C suitable to those supra-mundane powers. For in it, the Maker of all things produced a certain intellectual light, fitting for the blessed angels who love the Lord.” Hear also what Gregory, known as the Theologian, says: “First, God conceives the angelic and divine powers in His mind. And this thought was immediately a work, completed by the Word and perfected by the Spirit. Second, He conceives the material and visible world.” Similar things to this are handed down by his brother Caesarius: “All,” he says, “the choirs of angels existed and lived in light even before this world was born.” Likewise, Anastasius Sinaites, truly a man of God, said of these things: “God, our Lord, who is always, before all created things, conceives and makes the angelic and heavenly powers, which He alone knows.” But Severus, and Diodorus indeed, and the great Amphilochius, prove that the invisible natures [were created] before the visible and sensible world. ^D

^A of our life, and has fortified it with hairs and, before these, with hard bones. Nature has made it tender, since it supplies the sources to all the senses. And lest it be damaged in its own nature by being crushed against the hardness of the bones—for it is, indeed, tender—He has enclosed it with two membranes; and these not simply so, but with the inner one being tender for the sake of the rest of the brain, and the outer one, again, being harder, so that by this means both might be preserved. Thus, then, He has also done likewise for the heart, as indeed the golden-tongued John says, having surrounded it with bones, but having placed beside it the lungs as if a tender cushion, so that it might not be crushed against the bones by its perpetual motion. ^B But it has the sources of much safety from many places—for the vapor is exhaled from it, so that it is not suffocated by the rising vapors. And if a blow should ever be struck, the damage does not become total; for if the bone were one and continuous, even one blow brought down would have damaged the whole, but now that it is divided into many parts, this is altogether impossible. For even if it should happen that one part is wounded, it is absolutely necessary that the bone situated at that part be damaged, but the rest all remain unhurt, the continuity of the blow being interrupted by the division of the bones. And what should one say about the excrements of the head, if the sense of smell, as you see, is entrusted with their secretions? Since, because the head, being situated above the body, is accustomed to receive the vapors rising from below, and the flood of these would have caused very much damage to the brain, the Creator of all things did not neglect this either, but having wrought certain passages in the bones, He guided the moist and thick parts of the excrements onto the palate and the nostrils, and assigned two parts for these secretions, so that the harmful matter might speedily be carried out. But the vaporous excrement is pushed out upwards through the sutures of the cranium. Do not marvel if the brain is cold by nature, and that man possesses a greater one than the other animals. For Aristotle says that the heat and boiling in the heart is tempered from there, so that the brain itself might not be overheated by the heat rising to it. And observe with understanding: because such heat is greater, a correspondingly greater coldness and moisture from the brain opposes it, on account of which moisture the bone around the head, which some call the bregma, solidifies very late. But man also possesses more sutures, and especially the male. For what reason? Because a larger brain is present in him; therefore, so that the structure might be airy, the male had need of more sutures. And such a [brain] that is dry and free from superfluities makes a man someone prudent and sober, while one that is over-moist does the opposite, namely, it makes him sluggish and sleepy and slothful. And pay attention, if you wish, to the wise Heraclitus: a dry soul ^C and ^D

^A it: “That He assumed substance in the human manner, we have learned from the sacred Oracles; but we are ignorant of how, from virginal blood, He was formed by another law contrary to nature.” Well did the great Athanasius say: “When She brought forth, She did not behold the things of labor.” For if this were not so, she would not be the same one both giving birth, and swaddling, and laying the child in the manger. And so the divine Fathers, whom we have distinguished, discoursed concerning that Gospel saying: “And he knew her not until she brought forth her firstborn Son.” But those heirs of Manes, the Paulicians, twisting such a saying to their own will, monstrously imagine that the spotless Mother of the Lord bore other sons from Joseph after the saving birth.

Our Lord Jesus Christ is born, and Magi from Persia arise, having beheld that most novel star, and they come for His adoration, having that star in the lead as it were pointing out the way. But pay attention, beloved, for no small disagreement occurs among the saints concerning the adoration by the Magi. For first, the great Epiphanius, in his book the *Panarion*, says that Christ was adored by the Magi when He was two years old and in a house. Because the star that appeared in their country revealed the birth of Christ according to the flesh, and it anticipated the Magi by a little while in bringing them to Jerusalem (for, according to this, Herod also ordered ^B the infants to be destroyed up to the age of two, according to the time he accurately ascertained from the Magi), for this reason, the divine man, being mindful of this, said that Christ was adored by the Magi at two years of age. But John of the golden speech does not hold so; for he does not say that the star appeared to the Magi at the very same time that Christ was born. And hear what he sets forth word for word in his interpretation of Matthew: “The star appeared to the Magi long before the birth, so that they might adore Christ in swaddling clothes. For they were going to spend much time on the road. For God, he says, measured out the time which the Magi were going to spend on the road; and thus, according to him, He anticipated them with the star, so that from this they might adore the Lord in swaddling clothes.” But also the great Athanasius, and John Damascene himself, saying that Christ was adored by the Magi in a cave, entirely confirm the explanation of the golden-mouthed one. ^C

I know, beloved, that you are not a little in doubt regarding the rest of the things concerning such a star—the paradoxical motion, the standing still, the hiding, the descent from on high, and absolutely all such ^D things. But do not doubt any further; for the fact that He was manly established from the holy Oracles, we have learned; but we are ignorant how, from virginal blood, He was formed by another law contrary to nature. Well did the great Athanasius say: “When She brought forth, She did not behold the things of labor.” For if this were not so, she would not be the same one both giving birth, and swaddling, and laying the child in the manger. And so the divine Fathers, whom we have distinguished, discoursed concerning that Gospel saying: “And he knew her not until she brought forth her firstborn Son.” But those heirs of Manes, the Paulicians, twisting such a saying to their own will, monstrously imagine that the spotless Mother of the Lord bore other sons from Joseph after the saving birth. Our Lord Jesus Christ is born, and Magi from Persia arise, having beheld that most novel star, and they come for His adoration, having that star in the lead as it were pointing out the way.

^A a wiser one. For in moist brains the animal spirit, being as it were submerged—which can be seen in women—is unable to fulfill its functions perfectly. On this account, the most divine Cyril said that the female sex is inferior to the disposition of men by half. And let these things be said concerning the natural state and condition of the brain. But when it becomes drier than it should be, it is necessary for a man to be harmed and afflicted. For certain vehement disturbances of the just temperament are accustomed to blunt the operations of the parts themselves. Therefore, it usually happens that either fasts or vigils, increasing the natural dryness of the brain beyond what is proper, beget such diseases. ^B And it is therefore necessary that men affected in this way should use a diet that is somewhat more moist; for diseases born of dryness are cured by moisture. Again, if by reason of some disease the brain happens to be more moist than it should be, forgetfulness and a certain stupidity usually follow, and that so great that often a man may altogether forget his arts, his letters, and even his own name. For by three membranes is the brain divided, and its anterior ventricle is the instrument of the imaginative faculty, the middle one of the cogitative, and the posterior, finally, of the mnemonic. For first we conceive of this or that thing by a certain information; then we reason about what has been informed—what it is and how manifold by nature—and thus we finally store it in the memory. And these things are to be understood regarding those who are rightly affected and healthy. But if any one of these should by any disease at all be affected, then through the condition of that part the soul cannot be purely effective. These things, my dear son, I submit to you as warnings, that you may not blame the configurations and aspects of the stars, since such things are accustomed to happen by certain natural reasons.

PART II. FROM ADAM UNTO THE EMPIRE OF CAESAR

^C These things, then, even if they have been said rather as a digression, have been said entirely for the sake of your love of learning. For, as you see, yielding to your desire, I have gathered these things laboriously and have studiously arranged them in this treatise. And while we have hitherto used rather long digressions in this exposition, the whole of it is attributed to your zeal for learning, with which you so singularly burn. For, while we gratify your desire, as you see, we have collected these things with great labor and industry and have studiously digested them into this commentary.

^A His divinity was not rendered manifest from this, since he wrought no miracle there at that time, but only showed the grace insident upon his lips, after which he hid himself again from view, as the golden-tongued one says in his interpretation of the Gospel according to John.

^B Following these things—namely, after the baptism and the miracle performed at Cana—he chose twelve disciples, all of them needy and untaught, as it were fishermen, rude in letters and doctrine, and of obscure station. But why were these things so, and for what cause? In order that whatever was excellently accomplished by them might be attributed to the power and wisdom of God. And this is that very thing which the Lord said to Paul: "My grace is sufficient for thee, for my power is made perfect in weakness." [2 Cor. XII, 9] True reason confirms that poverty and lack of learning were present in the disciples of Christ. Nevertheless, a certain Epiphanius, a presbyter, in a discourse he gave concerning the birth—ostensibly—of the all-pure Mother of the Lord, says these things: that John, the son of Zebedee, after his father had died, sold all his possessions in Zebedee and, coming to Jerusalem, bought the holy Sion. Whence, because Caiaphas was present at the purchase made by John, the latter is said to be an acquaintance of the high priest. And he gave half of his goods to the high priest, and with the remaining half he prepared the Passover, that is to say, the mystical supper of Christ. For when Christ said to the disciples, "Go to such a one," he meant John the Theologian. There, then, they performed the mystical supper, and there they remained. And if I were not there, do not believe me. For the golden-mouthed John said that Zebedee and his sons had such great poverty that they would sit by their boat and mend old and torn nets. But how does that man who has been discussed dare to say that the mystical supper was prepared in the house of John, and that he himself was "the such a one" to whom the Lord sent the disciples? For if John himself was sent with Peter for the sake of preparing the Passover, according to the evangelical history, it is manifest that this presbyter never read the Gospel. For if he had succeeded in reading it, he would have known that John was sent to "such a one," and not that John himself was "such a one." ^C But he whom our fathers longed to see, behold, he has arrived. And having at once left everything behind, she reached the temple, and falling before Christ, she entreated him to enter her house, and indeed he arrived. And this is the house in which he performed the Passover with his disciples. And a story has come down to us from on high that the one carrying a pitcher of water, whom Christ permitted the disciples to follow, was Mark the wise, the son of this Mary; and it was in such a house that the apostles, having returned after the Ascension, went up with the rest of the brethren, among whom were also Barnabas and Mark. But a certain Epiphanius, if... etc. ^D (Note: "The Metaphrast also says concerning the martyrdom of the holy apostles Bartholomew and Barnabas... "—the rest is omitted as it is absent from the Meursius edition, the Leunclavius version, and the V. and C. codices.)

^A “Everyone who finds me will kill me.” He said this with regard to that shaking of his limbs. But do not fear, said the Lord; for whoever kills you will pay sevenfold, that is to say, he will make himself liable to seven punishments. And this is how we read these things recorded. Georgius, however, records that Cain died a miserable death through ignorance, as one whom Lamech, being deprived of his sight, killed; which certainly cannot merit belief. For who, I ask, can know whether Cain was still alive at the time of Lamech? Nothing certain can be established about this, since Moses does not record the years of the descendants of Cain as he does those of the descendants of Seth. Moreover, since God gave a sign to Cain that he should not be killed (and by the sign one must understand either the judgment of God itself, or the trembling of his limbs), how then was he killed?

If you ask why Moses does not record the years of the descendants of Cain, that great Cyril in his *Glaphyra* or *Varieties* will teach you, saying that this was not done out of ignorance on God’s part, but because He does not wish for the years of sinners, or their life as a whole, to be contained in the book of the living. The same Cyril relates that Cain and Abel were a type of the firstborn people of Christ and of those who believed in Him. For just as Cain, burning with envy and having shed the blood of his brother, fled from the face of God and fell into such a curse that he wandered and trembled upon the earth, so also the Jewish nation, because of the envy with which it burned and the blood of Christ which it shed, departed from the face of God and now wanders trembling and groaning. ^B In this way God set a mark upon Cain so that he might not be killed by anyone, which was what he feared would happen. For he himself had said: “It shall happen that everyone who finds me will kill me.” Josephus relates that Cain entreated God that he might not, by chance, fall into the hands of wild beasts while wandering, and says that the man perished in this way.

But if you desire to know whence Cain learned the way to kill his brother, since he knew of no one else yet having been killed by anyone, you shall learn this from the great Athanasius, who says that the devil in a dream showed Cain the method of the killing. Envy, then, as has been said, having settled in the soul of Cain as in a dwelling, gave birth to the murder of Abel. For such are the passions to which the souls of men have become subject since the fall from that state free from perturbation and from that perfection. Nevertheless, some souls are found to be superior to such passions, while others, again, not wishing to oppose them, succumb to whatever occasions arise, even the most trivial; something of which kind is also to be seen in bodies themselves. For some of them partake of good health throughout, [no external things having any effect upon them, while others...]

^A And another harlot again, as Luke says, is she who approached the house of Simon the Pharisee, who was also scandalized in Christ Himself and said thus: "If He were a prophet, He would have known what kind of woman she is who touches Him." And yet another in the house of Simon the leper came to Christ, as Matthew narrates. And the third was herself also a harlot, as Luke indicates, who met Christ in the house of Simon the Pharisee, who was offended on that account, and spoke words to this effect: "If this man were a prophet, he would have known what sort of woman this is who touched him."

I know also, beloved son, that some contend and assert that the transformation of our Lord Jesus Christ happened on that great fourth day; but the argument upon which they rely seems to me to be little ^B probable. For if this miracle occurred on Mount Tabor, but the Lord was feasting in Jerusalem on the day of that great fourth day in the house of Simon the leper, it is manifest that this miracle of the transformation occurred on another day, and not on that fourth day itself. Especially since the distance between Tabor and Jerusalem is about two days' journey, how then can they say that Christ was in Mount Tabor and in Jerusalem on one and the same day? He could, indeed, as God, have brought it about that He was found here and there at the same time; but lest the thing be thought of as a mere appearance, He did not wish to do this before the Passion. Wherefore, also, in accordance with the common nature of bodies, He made His transitions from place to place.

After these things, He sends two of His disciples to a certain man for the preparation of the legal Passover; which He ate in advance on the evening of the Great Thursday, as the golden-tongued John says. ^C Then, reclining, He gave His own Passover to the disciples through bread and wine, when He used these words: "Take, eat, this is my body," and, "Drink all of you; this is my blood." And indeed, before the disciples, He Himself partook of His own body and blood. For what reason? So that the disciples might not be disturbed again, as had happened before, when they heard Christ saying: "Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, you have no life in you." At which time, leaving Him, they walked no longer with Him, saying that this is a hard saying, which no one can easily hear. Wherefore, so that something of this kind might not happen to them again, as they were about to eat flesh and drink blood, He first tasted His own flesh Himself, wanting them to be fulfilled by these things without any hesitation. And the Savior instituted this supper for the consolation of the disciples; for He saw them ^D not a little dejected and broken in spirits because of His departure from them. Therefore, as has been said, He communicates His own body and blood to them, adding these words: "Do this in remembrance of me." Judas also partakes among the others, and then goes away to the Jews, reporting to them the things done by the Lord.

and are not in the least harmed by external events, while others are rendered so feeble and prone to diseases by their natural constitution that they cannot resist external causes in the slightest degree; indeed, if they are warmed slightly, or cooled, or if they keep watch, or sleep more than is proper, sickness immediately follows—this you should consider also to be the case with souls.

After these things, God, comforting Adam regarding both his distress at being cast out of paradise and the death of Abel, gave him the virtuous Seth. For it was concerning this that Eve also said: "God has raised up for me another seed in place of Abel, whom Cain killed." Know also that, in addition to other heresies, the great Epiphanius wrote about the so-called sect of the Cainites. These people honored ^B Cain as a certain power, and they said that good and evil do not exist for men by choice, but by nature. They also honor Judas; for because he delivered up the Lord, he performed a good work, that is, he brought about our salvation. There is also a book circulating among them called the "Anabaticon," containing the things that Paul saw when he ascended to the third heaven. Such is the book held by them, not noticing that Paul confesses that he heard certain words at that time which it is unlawful for human tongues to utter. And that those words were neither spoken nor known to anyone until now, Gregory the Theologian also demonstrates in his treatise on theology, saying: "If, then, it had been possible to utter the things which the third heaven and the progress up to that point provided to Paul, we might perhaps have known more about God." But also the golden-mouthed John, in his homilies on the *Hexaemeron*, speaks thus: "If the great Paul, who was deemed worthy to hear those ineffable words which no one else to this day has heard, writing, said: 'I buffet my body and bring it into bondage,' what should we say of ourselves?" And so much for these matters.

Adam however, after being cast out of paradise (for from this point chronological history begins), having lived nine hundred and thirty years, died in Judaea and was buried there. ^D And how this is so, hear. The great Epiphanius in his *Panarion*, and likewise the great Basil in his interpretation of the prophet Isaiah, say that an unwritten tradition is preserved in the Church concerning Adam, that immediately after being cast out of paradise he came to Judaea for the sake of comfort for what he had lost; for this land is called fertile. Therefore he lived there, and there he was buried. It seemed a marvel, then, to those who saw his skull, the flesh having wasted away, that Judaea first received that man as a corpse. Therefore, having deposited such a skull in a certain place, they called the place itself the place of Calvary; which place…

Great Thursday, as it is the day that prox- ^A imately precedes the day of the unleavened bread. For just as Mark called the preparation the day before the Sabbath, as being before the Sabbath, so too does Matthew call the Great Thursday the first of the unleavened bread, as being before the unleavened bread, as the one with the golden tongue says: "He completely revealed the Great Preparation." Likewise, Luke also, in saying that the day of the unleavened bread had come—that is, had drawn near—intimated the same things as Matthew. But John also, saying that the supper happened before the feast of the Passover, called it the preparation itself, and the things that follow declare this; for he says: "And they ^B themselves did not enter, so that they might not be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover," and again, "But it is a custom for you that I should release one man to you at the Passover," that is, at the one then present. But he also indicates the time when Pilate sat down at a place called the Pavement, saying thus: "And it was the preparation of the Passover, and the hour was about the sixth." And further on, "For that day of the Sabbath was great." And he would not have called it great in any other way unless the first day of the unleavened bread, which is also called holy by the Law, had happened to coincide with that Sabbath. All these things clearly imply that the Passover was admittedly slaughtered ^C on the evening of that preparation. For this reason he also called it the preparation of the Passover, as preparing the things for the Passover that was absolutely present. Therefore, without contradiction, it appears that the Passover took place on the evening of the preparation. If this were not so, the evangelist John would not have said this: "And they themselves did not enter into the praetorium, so that they might not be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover." And attend, if you wish, to the great Cyril, who, before the others, seals such things and says that by honoring the type—that is, the sheep—and therefore not choosing to enter the praetorium, they were insulting the truth itself, which is Christ; for they were about to sacrifice the Passover according to the Law, which had no power among them. If these things are so, those who say that the typical sheep is eaten on the evening of Great Thursday are obviously talking nonsense; for in striving to establish the unleavened bread, they wickedly attempt to corrupt the truth. And do not bring forward to me the golden-mouthed John in his eighty-fourth homily on Matthew, saying that the Jews, having unexpectedly seized Christ, also chose to overlook the feast of the Passover then coinciding. For you have him in his interpretation of the Gospel according to John, when it is said: "And they themselves did not enter, so that they might not be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover," completely abolishing such a suspicion. Hence, we judge that when the words of the divine man are examined—when they appear rather to be opposed to one another—we should not deem them to have power through silence, and especially [by] honoring such things; and it is even more reasonable to hold the last [interpretations], because these appear to be in agreement with the explanations of the rest of the Fathers. For he says that Christ ate the Passover one day before, which indeed ^D signifies the following things for understanding. For thus he says: "They themselves did not enter into the praetorium, that they might not be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover." And again: "It is a custom for you that I should release one man to you at the Passover, evidently the one now present." Furthermore, indicating the time when Pilate sat down in a certain place that was called the Pavement, he says thus: "And it was the preparation of the Passover, and the hour was about the sixth." Going onwards: "For that day of the Sabbath was great." But he would not have called this day great if the first day of the unleavened bread did not fall upon that Sabbath, which indeed is also called holy in the Law. All these things clearly indicate that it was the custom for the Passover to be slaughtered on the evening of the preparation. Therefore, for this reason the evangelist called it the preparation of the Passover, as preparing things for the surely present Passover. Thus, without any contradiction, it appears that the lamb was wont to be slaughtered on the very evening of the preparation. For if the matter were not so, the evangelist John would not have said: "They did not enter into the praetorium, that they might not be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover." See what that great Cyril says, when he confirms such things by sealing them with the following words: "Since they were honoring the figure, that is, the lamb, and therefore did not want to enter into the praetorium, they were insulting the truth itself, namely, Christ. For according to the Law, it had power and authority among them." Since these things are so, it is clear that they speak in vain who hand down that the typical lamb was wont to be slaughtered on the evening of Great Thursday. For while they strive with notable contention to prove the use of unleavened bread, they malevolently endeavor to deprave the truth. Nor shall you oppose to me in this place John Chrysostom, who in those eighty-fourth homilies, in which he explained the Gospel of Matthew, writes that the Jews, having taken Christ contrary to expectation, did not hesitate to neglect the feast of the Passover, which coincided on that day. Indeed, you have other words of the same man in the explanation of the Gospel written by John,

^A the Lord is subsequently crucified, that he might restore to life by the wood him who had become subject to mortality through the wood. Wherefore it is necessary to consider the Tatianists as speaking trifles, when they say that Adam did not attain salvation. Josephus, moreover, having learned it from Hebrew history, records that the same [Adam], as we have said, was carried into Judaea and buried there. However, writers differ in the noting of the times. For according to the authority of the Seventy translators, there are found in the ten generations from Adam to Noah 2242 years. The Hebrew text of the Jews hands down in the same generations 1656 years. The books of the Samaritans have 1507 Hebrew years. It is also related that the divine angel Uriel, whose station is among the stars, descended to Seth and Enoch and instructed them concerning the differences of the hours, months, conversions, and the years themselves. George records that Seth was the first to discover Hebrew letters, the signs of the heavens, the conversions of the years, the months, the weeks, and that he gave names to the stars and the five planets, so that they might be recognized. This Seth, when he had lived 912 years, passed away, being deemed a god on account of his virtue and because he was the first to have discovered Hebrew letters and the names of the stars. He begat Enos, who also deserved to be considered a god for his virtue. Having lived 905 years, he departed from human affairs. He had a son, Cainan, who, when he had completed his 910th year of age, died, leaving his son Mahalaleel, who died after completing 895 years of life. He had a son, Jared, who left the earth after 962 years of life. He begat Enoch, from whom Methuselah was born; and when Enoch had lived 365 years, he was taken up by God and was nowhere to be found. ^B And the holy Scripture says twice that Enoch begat Methuselah. Therefore the golden-mouthed John, explaining these things, says: “Marriage is no obstacle to those who wish to please God; for this is why the divine Scripture says once and again that after begetting Methuselah, Enoch pleased God,” on account of which he is translated. And behold, consider here the goodness of the Lord. For having found a man who had perfected virtue, He did not deprive him of the dignity with which He had adorned the first-formed man before the violation of the commandment. And indeed, that God translated Enoch to console those who fell into mortality on account of sin, that great Athanasius in his discourse on the Assumption clearly signifies with these words: “Death indeed entered on account of disobedience; but nevertheless, God, mitigating the extreme severity of His threat, at once displays to the human race the hope of immortality by snatching Enoch from the midst of mortals. By this very act, He taught us that mortal nature is to expect the boundaries of immortality, and the status of the righteous man became a station against death.” ^C The same George says that when Lamech, that is, the brother of Enoch, had killed his own brothers and taken their wives...

as this saying declares: ^A “They themselves did not enter, lest they should be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover.”

The fact, however, that the leavened bread given by the Lord to the apostles at the supper was not unleavened, as those others assert, this most divine man demonstrates to you most clearly. For, speaking of the Old and New Covenants, he proceeds step by step, saying: “There was the letter, here the Spirit; there the ark, here the Virgin; there the rod of Aaron, here the cross; there the lamb, here Christ; there the unleavened bread, here the bread.” These things have been inscribed for you in summary, as you see; for the time does not allow us to dwell longer on discussions regarding these matters.

Next, our Lord Jesus Christ is delivered to be crucified: observe what followed. For from the sixth hour of the day, darkness covered the whole earth until the ninth hour, as it is credible that God was indignant because of the things that were being perpetrated. For that this was not an eclipse, as he of the golden tongue says, but rather the wrath and indignation of God, is clear even from the time; for the eclipse ^B remained for three hours, whereas it ^C usually occurs in but a single moment of time. Such is the reasoning of Chrysostom. But that divine man, Dionysius the Areopagite, teaches that these universal shadows did not occur so simply, but in a new and unusual way through the obstruction of the lunar body, appearing as it were to block the sun. For in writing to the hierarch Polycarp regarding the fact that the sophist Apollophanes would not embrace the Christian religion, he brings forward these words to him: “But say to him, that is, to Apollophanes: What do you think about that eclipse which occurred at the time of the saving passion? For we were both together at that time at Heliopolis, and standing in the same place, we watched the moon falling upon the sun in an unusual way (for it was not the time for the conjunction of those luminaries). And then again we watched it, from the ninth hour until evening, by some supernatural way, having been restored to such a position that it had the sun diametrically opposite to itself. And he himself was so struck with fear at the time that he was astonished, and turning to me he said: ‘These, O Dionysius, are the vicissitudes of divine things.’” ^D In this manner Dionysius speaks regarding this matter. Concerning these same shadows that arose at the time of the saving passion, the prophet Zechariah also speaks in a certain admirable way: “In that day,” he says, “there shall be no light,” namely, when Christ is to be crucified, “but cold and frost shall be for one day, and that day is known to the Lord.” For God had everything known beforehand. For it will not be day, nor likewise night. For it could not properly be called day, because of that three-hour darkness, nor truly night, because of the light that occurred until the sixth hour and after the ninth. The prophet, himself declaring this, said: “And toward evening there shall be light.” These things, beloved, not only did the prophets foretell, but they are also found in many Greek commentaries; for a great earthquake is also said to have occurred at that time.

for himself, this righteous man prayed that he might not look upon anything of this sort any longer.

^B Cain also, after having intercourse with his wife, she conceived and bore Enoch. To this Enoch is born Gaidan, and Gaidan begets Malaleel, and Malaleel begets Mathusala, and Mathusala begat Lamech. Lamech took for himself two wives, Ada and Sella, and said to them: “Hear my voice, wives of Lamech, give ear to my words: for I have killed a man to my injury, and a young man to my bruise; because vengeance has been taken sevenfold from Cain, but from Lamech seventy times seven.” And it is asked here why vengeance was taken sevenfold from Cain, even though he had committed the deed of murder against his own brother, whereas from Lamech it was seventy times seven. We say that Cain did not yet know what a great evil murder was; he had not yet seen a manifest punishment, he had not yet seen God indignant at it—wherefore he did not receive such a heavy punishment. But Lamech is burdened with the torment because he was a murderer after the law and the condemnation, and because he did not make himself prudent by the example of Cain; hence he receives a heavier punishment than the other. ^C Yet Cain did not obtain forgiveness for the murder, because when he was being rebuked by God, he strove to hide his sin. But Lamech is absolved from the blood-guilt because he alone brought the verdict against himself, and showed himself worthy of a greater punishment, saying thus: “And from Lamech seventy times seven.”

But if you also explore this point, beloved, regarding what God said to Cain—that whoever killed Cain would loosen seven-fold vengeance—the golden-mouthed John, in his sixth discourse against the Jews, will teach you, by going through it word for word, as follows: “Do not fear,” he says, “you will live a long life; and if someone kills you, he will be liable to many punishments. For the number seven in Scripture is indicative of an indefinite multitude. ^D Whoever kills you, he says, will release you from the punishments lying upon you, but will draw the punishment upon himself.” And what is said seems to be little, but it is of great providence. For wishing to make those who came after prudent, He devised such a method of punishment, which could also deliver him from the penalty. For if He had killed him immediately, he would have departed taking his sin with him, and he would not have become known to those who came after. Now, having been allowed to live a long time in that terror, he became a teacher to all who met him, through the sight of him. But why, pray, having confessed his sin, and having said that his sin was greater than would allow for forgiveness, was he not able to wash away the transgression? And yet the Prophet says, “You speak your iniquities first, that you may be justified.”

^A The Jews, however, so that the bodies might not remain on the cross on the Sabbath, since it was the day of preparation (for that day of the Sabbath was a great day), asked Pilate, and so forth. They take Jesus down from the wood, therefore, and lay Him in a new tomb. But look here also, my beloved, at the wisdom of God, so that we might not be deprived of the cross itself; so that the Jews, using their customary madness, might not make the all-holy body of the Lord a work of fire or of the sea, [God] stirred up Augustus Caesar to register the whole world. These things happen, and the race of the Hebrews falls under the authority of the Romans. For this reason, they present the Lord to Pilate, who had obtained the governorship over them, not being allowed to carry out their own will upon Him. For indeed, if they had been permitted, they would have put Christ to death with stones or sawn Him with a wooden saw, and from that we would have been deprived of our guardian, the cross. For if they threw Jeremiah, the friend of God, into a pit of mire, what would they not have done to the Lord’s body, had they not had the Roman law restraining them? Thus the registration takes place, the matters of good order are introduced, and from this the body of the Lord is consigned to a complete burial.

I know, beloved, that you have also made much inquiry concerning the three-day burial of the Lord, being unable, as it were, to measure out three days for this event. But leave aside, if you wish, the opinions of the many, for they are inventions of human reasoning. Rather, place your trust in Isidore of Pelusium, who hands down something of this sort: just as we are accustomed to act in the case of those who have passed away, in that at whatever hour one might die, we set aside the following day, and on the dawn of the second day we count it as his third day; and so you must think regarding Christ Himself. For on the day of Preparation He gave up His spirit; this, therefore, is one day. He spent the whole Sabbath in the tomb; behold, you have the second day. And after this, as the Lord’s day was dawning, He rose from the tomb; behold, you have the third day. And you will grant this as true, if you wish to believe Luke and Cleopas, who say to Christ Himself: "Further, with all these things, it is now the third day since these things happened."

^D And if He rose from the tomb even sooner, He will by no means be blamed for this; rather, He will be worshipped by all, because, having endured for the sake of the appointed promise, He brought about His own resurrection from the dead more quickly. And the divine man, whom we have mentioned, thus discussed these things; but the golden-mouthed John says that Christ did well even by rising from the dead before the completion of three days. For if He had not risen at that time while the soldiers were sitting there keeping watch, but had risen after the third day had passed, those most wicked men would have had something to say. He therefore anticipated [the time] and rose. For it was necessary that the resurrection should take place while they were sitting [beside Him]. Therefore He was compelled to rise from the dead within the three days,

^A For this reason he was condemned, because he did not speak as the Prophet commanded. For this is what is required: not merely to speak, but to speak first—not to wait for the one who accuses. But Cain did not speak first, but waited to be accused by God, and only then spoke of his sin. Which is not a confession. For to speak first, that truly justifies.

And these are the words of Chrysostom: “After Enoch came Methuselah, and after him Lamech, and from him Noah. He begat three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. And it came to pass that when men began to multiply upon the earth, daughters were born unto them. And the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair; and they took them wives of all which they chose. And the Lord God said: ‘My Spirit shall not always strive with these men, for they are flesh. And their days shall be one hundred and twenty years.’ And there were giants in the earth in those days. At that time God brought about the flood.” ^B And the cause is also very clear. And hear Josephus, speaking before the others: “For seven generations men lived regarding God as Lord and looking toward virtue in all things. But after this, they changed for the worse. For many of God’s people mingled with women and begat arrogant children, who held every noble thing in contempt because of their trust in their own power. Wherefore God purposed to destroy all of the human race along with them, and to make another generation pure of wickedness, cutting short the very years that they lived before.”

But the great Cyril also says that when the sons of God—that is, those descended from Seth (for they called him ‘god’ because of his virtue)—saw the daughters of men—that is, the ones from Cain—that they were fair in appearance, they took them as wives. ^C Whence the giants were born, men of unsightly appearance and doing every possible evil, God having distorted them because of their profane mingling. Whence also He flooded them, as the foremost Peter indicated in his second Catholic Epistle, saying thus: “Bringing a flood upon the world of the ungodly.” But why did he call those who worshipped the one God “ungodly”? Because they raged so violently in their lusts that a woman was brought around to twenty men. For from this, they drew in the sons of God—those, namely, from Seth—into carnal union. Now, the sons of God are called such also because of their virtue, just as Israel is called the firstborn son, as the divine Ephraim said. And the golden-tongued one [Chrysostom] also says that the windows of heaven were opened for no other reason than this intermingling of the races. And that it was because of self-indulgence and that profane mingling, for which reasons he called the giants “ungodly”... ^D

it was perceived at Tiberias; He was seen by James, the brother of God; He was seen by more than five hundred men. And finally, He appeared ^A to them on the Mount of Olives, where, as we have said, after forty days, He made His ascension from the earth.

Now, if you also wish to learn why He spent forty days on earth after His resurrection from the dead, and neither more nor fewer, the great Epiphanius, behold, will briefly resolve this mystery for you. "For in the same way," he says, "that after Christ was born, He was laid in a manger, wrapped in swaddling clothes, and after forty days was brought into the divine temple and, according to the law of Moses, presented to God—so, too, having become the firstborn from the dead, He stays on earth for forty days, and after that returns to the Jerusalem above, to appear before the face of God for us. And be persuaded by the great Paul, who says: 'For Christ did not enter into holy places made by hands, which are copies of the true ones, but into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God on our behalf.'"

The Lord was taken up. Ten days pass after this, and the descent of the all-holy Spirit occurs. This descent takes place after the completion of ten days because the number ten is perfect. Since, then, the Holy Spirit was descending for this purpose—that He might make the imperfect disciples perfect—for this reason He descended ^B upon them in a perfect number, that is, on the tenth day.

And that He rendered the imperfect disciples perfect, the chief apostle, Peter, demonstrated. For observe with intelligence that previously, having been terrified by a certain miserable maidservant, he denied his Master three times; yet, later, emboldened by the all-holy Spirit, he preached with great boldness in the midst of the people and from then on persuaded everyone to come to Christ without hesitation.

After fifty days, then, as has been said, from the resurrection of Christ from the dead, the descent of the all-holy Spirit occurs. For what reason? Because the old law was also given on the fiftieth day after God’s manifestation. For according to the golden-tongued and divine John, or rather according to the history of the God-seer Moses, fifty days had passed after the exodus of the Jews from Egypt when Moses received the God-inscribed tablets. If, therefore, the old law was given in fifty days, it was absolutely necessary that the grace of the all-holy Spirit be given on that same day, so that from this, beloved, it might be shown—both in the Old and New Testaments—that the nature of the Godhead is indivisible, and that the Holy Spirit was the lawgiver both then and now.

"And there appeared to them cloven tongues as of fire." Why tongues? Because there was need for preaching, and as there was need for preaching, and in order that the ^D proclamation might be carried out, as it was necessary to instruct the nations and to explain to the Gentiles the hidden things of the mystery. For this reason, then, the tongues appeared. But why did they appear as "of fire"? Because, as the Lord said, "I came to cast fire upon the earth," which is said to be the fire of the Holy Spirit. And because the fire is both light and heat; therefore, the Spirit is also light and heat, enlightening the understanding and inflaming the will. And thus, those who were cold and dark were immediately made bright and burning, and they became witnesses to God, enlightening the whole world with their instruction as with a burning lamp.

^A that there was no other cause for the flood being brought on, the most divine Cyril clearly demonstrates this in the book against Julian, saying: “The human beings descended from Adam down to Noah honored one true God. But after the construction of the tower and the division of the languages, they held an incompatible opinion regarding God; for having been scattered everywhere, they possessed the delusion of polytheism.” That the universal deluge occurred because of the debauchery of both parties, God Himself indicated, saying: “My Spirit shall not remain in these men, because they are flesh,” that is to say, because they live passionately and carnally. Thus, therefore, the great Paul calls those who live temperately “not in the flesh,” saying: “But you are not in the flesh.” ^B Indeed, it is the custom of Scripture to call them “flesh,” just as it also calls them “ungodly,” those who lead a profligate life; for ungodliness is not only the worship of idols, but also the very life that is lascivious and profligate. And the blessed David declares this, saying: “I said, I will confess my transgression against me to the Lord, and You forgave the ungodliness of my heart.” For was David an unbeliever? Did he entirely abjure God? No, but he called by the name of ungodliness the desire which gave birth to adultery. And God brought that universal flood because all those people were in need of a purgation. And Scripture presents this, saying: “And the Lord God saw the earth, and it was corrupted, because all flesh had corrupted its way upon the earth.” ^C Pay attention, therefore, beloved. For if God did not spare anyone at that time, but drowned them all utterly, having gained nothing from their honoring God by words alone, it is surely evident that He will not spare us either on that day, even if we bear the name of Christians. For our Master Christ, the Lord of all, will truly say to us, that which He said to the Jews when they spoke boastfully: “We are from our father Abraham.” For just as He said to them, “If you were from Abraham, you would do the works of Abraham,” so He will also say to us: “If you considered yourselves Christians, you would do the works that are fitting for Christians.” Do not, therefore, doubt these things; for by that universal flood and the conflagration at Sodom, God ^D clearly showed what kind of end awaits those who spend their lives in debauchery. Now Noah, having reached five hundred years, begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth. On account of which the man is worthy of admiration, that he passed over so much time, and did not wish to submit to even lawful unions. And as the Golden-mouthed says, if there had not been a divine dispensation,

^A And that the form might interpret the effect, as he who is golden of tongue says: for the apostles were fishermen, and they had need of the gift of speech for their preaching. He spoke of "cloven" tongues, because the fire appeared descending in a single form, then was divided to the apostles. That fire was not the Spirit itself, but a power of the Spirit. Moreover, the tongues were not cast into their mouths, but sat upon their heads; for they were being ordained as rulers of the inhabited world and as heralds. For you see that even until now this custom persists; for the Gospel is placed upon the head of the man who is to be ordained high priest, and when it is placed there, there is nothing else to be seen but a tongue lying upon the head. It appeared in the form of fire because of Him who said: "I am come to send fire upon the earth" for the sake of the passions that had run wild like a jungle.

^C "And it sat upon each one of them." Therefore, everyone serving God is a throne of God; for this reason, he said "it sat." "And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance." Upon which those who stood by said, "Are not all these who are speaking Galilaeans? And how do we hear, each in our own language, Parthians and Medes and Elamites and the rest?" They received the gifts of fifteen languages for the time being, as he who is golden of tongue says, as far as those who were present were concerned. For what was the need for the Persian language, with no Persians present? There appeared to be fifteen languages for this reason also, that the power of the Trinity might be seen, and the twelve as ministers. And it was possible to see the Galilaean Peter speaking in the Roman tongue, a language he had not learned, just as one could see each of the others speaking a particular tongue. For the Holy Spirit ordained this, that there might not be contention among the apostles as to where each one ought to go. Wherefore a particular tongue is given to each as a rule. That is to say: Do you speak Roman? Go to Rome. Do you speak Persian? Go to Persia. And in that language, as has been said, they received the rule; but because, again, they had to pass through many nations as they went to Rome, they received other tongues as assistants, having the first as if in place of an ordination. For each of the apostles is found speaking even in various tongues, since they were passing through many nations. This is clear from what Paul says: "I thank God that I speak in tongues more than you all." Then, at that time, the prophecy of the most divine Joel received its fulfillment, which says: "I will pour out of my Spirit upon all flesh," that is to say, upon that which believes. For not only did the apostles receive [the gift of] tongues—

^A that the human race was to be restored through him, he would never have submitted to carnal desires at all. For this reason God calls him perfect in his generation—that is, in the perverse one.

But behold the long-suffering of God. He does not bring on the flood immediately, but for a hundred years He prepares the ark, even though the foolish mocked Noah as he served the divine will. But even seeing all the beasts gathering, as the divine Ephrem says—lions and leopards coming from India and Persia with sheep and goats mingled together, and reptiles and birds coming without anyone chasing them and dwelling around the ark—they were not in the least pricked to the heart. May this not happen to us, that we should always be wakeful.

^B Whence did Noah know which animals were clean and which were unclean, since their separation by Moses had not yet taken place, as the Golden-mouthed says? From the natural knowledge stored within him, or from the wisdom given to him by God. How excellent is virtue! It translated Enoch; it saved Noah. For look how God, delivering all those others to destruction, said to Noah: "Enter you and all your house into the ark, for I have seen you [to be] righteous before Me in this generation, which is wicked and perverse." Yet, giving them an appointed time for repentance, He says: "And their days shall be 120 years," even though they did not all live this long on account of their wickedness; for those who did not succeed in repenting during the hundred years would not have repented even in the twenty.

Observe also that sometimes God cuts short the life He promised to give, as here, if we do not repent; and sometimes, when threatening to destroy, He does not do so if we repent, as may be seen in the case of the Ninevites.

^C The water rose above the mountains to fifteen cubits, so that the divine decree might be fulfilled: "For I will blot out," He says, "every living thing that I have made, from man unto beast, and from reptiles unto birds under heaven." If it had not risen so high, the race of birds would not have perished. That the water was raised above the highest mountains at the time of the flood is proven from this: some people, while moving stones from the heights of Lebanon for buildings, maintained that they found inside the hollows of Lebanon fish salted and stuck in the mud, as even Josephus says.

After the cessation of the flood, Noah offered a sacrifice to God. Why so? So that He might render God forgiving and serene toward those who would be in weakness, as the great ^D Cyril, lest another vote should again come against all, by a second flood the...

human race subjecting. Concerning which God also said to him: "Having considered, I will no longer add to curse the earth because of the works of men, for the thought of man is intent upon evil from his youth." Because of this, as has been said, he offered a sacrifice to God. According to this, also, God commanded that seven ^A seven of the clean animals be brought into the ark, and two by two of the unclean. For because He was about to concede to men to partake of flesh, and those fostered by Him were also about to offer sacrifices to Him of piety, He commanded that the clean ones be preserved in greater number—the three pairs for the increase of the race, and the one remaining for sacrifice. This is also what he did after the flood, offering from all the clean ones to God, so that it is manifest that on this account He commanded that seven of each kind of the clean animals be brought into the ark, so that Noah, by offering one animal from each kind, might not destroy the pairs. God so greatly accepted the disposition of Noah at the first bringing of the sacrifice ^B that Scripture also says: "And the Lord smelled an odor of sweetness." Henceforth with a sound mind also we must do everything. If not, even if we bring anything whatsoever, God will turn away from it. For you see that here the virtue of the righteous man made the smoke and the savor into an odor of sweetness. But among the Jews, the wickedness of those offering caused the fragrant incense to be seen as an abomination.

Now Josephus, concerning the raven itself which was released by Noah to see if the water had abated, appears to be in conflict with the history of Moses. For he says the raven returned to the ark, as if on all the earth the water were still standing. But Moses says of these things thus: "And the raven did not return ^C until the earth was dried." For according to this, he sent out a dove afterwards, inasmuch as the raven did not wish to return to him. But Josephus also introduces some historians who say concerning some very high mountain of Armenia that during the time of the flood some men fled, and there obtained salvation because of the height. But those men cast themselves outside the mark and are carried far from the straight path. For if the water was then raised above the highest mountains by fifteen cubits, as Moses records, no mountain, I think, would have remained at that time that had the power to keep those who had taken refuge on it safe and unharmed. ^D The ark itself indeed was of three hundred cubits in length, fifty in width, and thirty in height. Hearing the word "cubit," do not think it to be such as is in use among us, but a geometric one. For Moses, being a geometer from Egypt, used such...

...has not yet covered.

[GREEK COLUMN] ^A does. For the Egyptians, as Cyril says, were the first to find geometry, out of [the necessity of measuring] the vastness of the land and its division. But the theory of phenomena was perfected among the Greeks, the first observations having occurred in Babylon. And the study of numbers began from the Phoenician merchants. And so much for these things.

He spoke of a cubit on the ark, which [represents] the largest fathom. ^B After five hundred and thirty-six years from the flood, the building of the tower took place, those people having labored in vain on this for forty years. "For it says," he relates, "a man said to his neighbor, 'Come, let us make bricks and let us burn them with fire,' and 'let us build for ourselves a city and a tower, whose head shall be up to heaven.'" But why and for what purpose [did they do] this? So that if a second flood should occur, they might run up to its summit, and from thence escape destruction from the water. For this reason God hindered their vainglorious labor through the confusion of the tongues. And hear the Scripture speaking thus: “And the Lord said, 'Behold, there is one race and one lip of all. Come and let us descend and confuse the language there, so that they may not each hear the voice of his neighbor.' And the Lord God scattered them from thence upon the face of all the earth." ^C At that time they were also called *Meropes* from the division of the speech and of the earth. But the senseless Julian said this, among other things, that [God], seeing them being exalted by means of the tower, and being not a little perturbed by this, methodically hindered their ascent through the confusion of the tongues. The tower, however, was being built, with seventy-two [individuals] as the leaders of the construction. According to them, therefore, the division of the languages occurred, there being one lip and one voice for all, as was said above. Heber alone, not having consented to the vainglorious labor of the rest, remained in his own language. From the beginning, therefore, [is] the Hebrew tongue. That those from Adam used the language of the Hebrews is clear also from the fact that those around Abraham utilized such a dialect, and it is clear also from the fact that the second Adam, Christ our God, utilized the Hebrew tongue. And the matters on the cross declare this, ^D and no less those things in which He said, "Ephphatha," that is, "Be opened," and again elsewhere, "Talitha cumi," which is, "I say to you, little girl." In addition to these things, the great Epiphanius also says of these: "After the flood, the tower, then Heber, the ancestor of the Hebrews, who they say, not having wished to join with those building the tower, remained in his own language. Of him is Abraham a descendant, whence also the Hebrew tongue." Josephus also says the same things as these. And these, then, are so; but Theodoret says that those from Adam used the Syrian language. One should know, however, that Chanaan, the son of Ham, having seen that the land towards Lebanon was still good, after...

the division of the earth had been made by lot among the sons of Noah, seized it by force, and expelled the heirs of Sem from there. And thus the whole land of promise was called the region of Chanaan. Josephus also mentions that it was called Chananæa after Chanaan. Sem begat Arphaxad, and Arphaxad begat Cainan, who, according to Georgius, wrote books on astronomy, having discovered the naming of the stars as set forth by Seth and his descendants and inscribed upon a stone tablet. For since they had been instructed long before that it would come to pass that mankind would perish both by fire and by water, they erected two columns, one of stone and the other of brick, and inscribed upon them all the celestial things set forth by their forefather Seth, having reasoned that if it should come to pass that the world were destroyed by water, the stone column with its inscribed letters would survive (which column, as Josephus testifies, remained safe after the flood on Mount Sideros and exists even today); but if the world were to be destroyed by fire, the brick column would remain.

^B There appeared from the offspring of Sem another of gigantic origin, whose name was Cronus. Having become very powerful and having subjected many, he was the first to demonstrate how to rule and keep others in subjection, and having been the first to rule as king of the Assyrians for 56 years, he subjected the entire land of Persia. After Cronus, Ninus reigned for 52 years, who, having taken his own mother, Semiramis, as his wife, established a law among the Persians to take their own mothers and sisters [as wives]. From this family also came Zoroaster, that famous and well-known astronomer of the Persians, who said to the Persians: "If the heavenly fire burns me" (for this is what he also prayed for), "take from my bones, and preserve them for the stability of your kingdom." And that which was [predicted] did indeed happen.

In the histories which the great theologian Gregory used against Julian, these words are also found: "Astronomy is said to have been first discovered by the Babylonians through Zoroaster, and the Egyptians subsequently received it. Magic was discovered by the Medes, and then by the Persians." But magic differs from sorcery. For magic is, as they say, the invocation of beneficent spirits for the establishment of some good, while sorcery is the invocation of maleficent spirits, which hover around graves, for the establishment of some evil. The name sorcery (*goeteia*) is derived from the wailings and lamentations which habitually occur at graves, whereas magic is derived from the Magusaeans, that is, the Persians, from whom it also had its origin; for the Persians are called Magi in their own tongue. The great Cyril, however, in his writings against Julian, is found to have written that nine hundred years after the flood, Arbylus reigned as the first of men over the Assyrians. He was the first to take upon himself the name of divinity. But Ninus, the son of that man, is also said to have been the first to rule prominently among the Assyrians, from whom is named Nineveh, the walls of which Semiramis magnificently constructed.

^A After the building of the tower, as has been said, men were scattered hither and thither and lapsed into absurd actions, and finally were led astray into idolatry, being deceived by the demons in this way, the miserable wretches. For the eighth from Noah, Seruch, discovered the practice of images from the beginning; for it is said that he honored with statues and pillars those who had displayed any brilliant work whatsoever. But those who came after them, ignorant of the intention of their ancestors—and that they had erected the statues for the sake of memory—gradually wandering through the cooperation of the author of all evil, added people who were affected by the same passions and subject to destruction as immortal gods, and devised sacrifices for them, as the demons inhabited the wooden images. From this, the human race served other and different gods. But the Egyptians sank into atheism more than the others; for they worshipped cats and monkeys, and likewise goats and bulls and crocodiles. More than the others, they worshipped Apis, the ox that was many-colored. For when such a bull was born among them, bearing marks on its tongue and tail, and similarly on its forehead something like a replica of a half-moon, they danced joyfully and held festivals, as if a new god had arrived for them. And concerning these matters, so much. ^B It is said that the eighth from Noah is Seruch; for Cainan begets Sala, Sala begets Heber, Heber begets Phalec, Phalec begets Ragau, Ragau begets Seruch. And this Seruch begets Nachor, Nachor begets Thara, and Thara begets the divine Abraham. Abraham begets Isaac, Isaac begets Jacob, and Jacob the twelve patriarchs, Ruben, Simeon, Levi, Juda and the rest, from whom are the twelve tribes of Israel. And at that time, concerning Abraham, Josephus says this, that having gone down into Egypt he bestowed upon them arithmetic and delivered to them the matters concerning astronomy; for before Abraham’s presence there, the Egyptians were ignorant of such things. From the Chaldeans, therefore, these things flowed down into Egypt, and from there to the Greeks. And Georgios says these things concerning this: Abraham, being fourteen years old, began the knowledge of God, and was the first to proclaim God the Creator. For seeing the heaven at one time bright and at another cloudy, he said to himself: "Even if others honor it, it is not God." Likewise he said this concerning the sun, the moon, and the remaining stars; for indeed he was a master astronomer. For which reason, seeing such things, God called him. But he also says that in the time of Abimelech he went down into Egypt because of the famine, and shamed the wise men there who were glorifying fate and the stars. For after the knowledge of God he no longer wished to pay attention to the stars, and it was possible to see fulfilled in him the word of the Apostle saying: "For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made." For God the Creator is seen from the created things.

^A For the most divine Abraham grasped the Creator God from the things created. In accordance with this, Plutarch also said: "For I have gained a notion of God; for always the sun and moon and the remaining stars, being borne under the earth, arise again similar in times, and equal in magnitudes, and in the same places." Great indeed was Abraham. For having heard God saying, "Depart from your land and from the land of your kindred, and come into the land which I will show you," he immediately followed, disregarding the difficulties in between, and not even knowing whither he was going. But we, hearing the Lord calling daily, neither wish to depart from earthly things, nor to come to that promised land. But also, the golden-tongued John, admiring his humility, says these things: "True humility is when one yields the first places to another, just as Abraham also does, so that he might not enter into litigation with Lot and his shepherds; by which it came to pass that Lot received the better land, that is, the Sodomites', while Abraham dwelt by the oak of Mamre." And look also at the divine rewards. For God said to Abraham that, "All the land which you see from this place, I will give it to you and to your seed forever." But that better land which Lot received, which in no way differed from Paradise, did not turn out for the best for him who took it; for a little while later he was carried off as a captive by the five kings who had campaigned against him. But the divine Abraham rescues him, having attacked them with his three hundred and eighteen house-born servants and having cut them down. ^B And this is what Paul says, that Melchisedec welcomes Abraham returning from the slaughter of the kings with bread and wine, and he gave tithes to him from the spoils which he brought. Consider this carefully. For, in truth, the real Melchisedec welcomes us, too, returning from the intelligible war with bread and wine, namely, with His own body and blood. If this is so, according to Abraham, we too must by all means offer our ten senses to Him instead of tithes, of the soul namely and of the body. Abraham, then, sitting by the oak of Mamre, gave hospitality to all who were passing by, believers and unbelievers alike, making no distinction between them in these matters; and he was so simply hospitable that the holy Trinity Itself came down to his tent and gladly partook of the things set before It. One must not marvel. You hear in the Scripture of angels eating; ^C for by an invisible activity they consumed the things set before them, under the pretext of eating. But also, Theodoret says thus: "They were not men by nature, but seemed to be, ^D

^D; for by an invisible activity they consumed the things set before them, under the pretext of eating." But if the Scripture says that he set before them, and they ate, there is nothing strange; for perhaps the Scripture called the consumption of them a "eating." And three men appear in the tent, as he of the golden tongue phrases it, but only two arrive at Sodom. For there, both the angels and the Master of them were seen at the same time. But the former were sent off as ministers, while the Lord remained, as it were, communicating as a friend with a friend to the just man concerning what he was about to do: "For truly," he says, "shall I conceal from Abraham my servant what I am about to do?" And Cyril the Great speaks thus concerning these: "They were three who at first approached Abraham at the oak of Mamre, but two who visited the Sodomites. For the Father judges no one, but has handed over all judgment to the Son, according to the voice of the Lord himself, with the Holy Spirit naturally accompanying him." That the Son and the Spirit were traveling to Sodom, the hospitality of Abraham clearly shows, as the great Athanasius says. For if the Son and the Spirit were not there, they would not have sat down with God and the Father. That they did sit down is evident from how he speaks concerning these: "Then they rose up, looking toward the face of Sodom." If, therefore, they rose up, they certainly sat down together. And if the Son sits at the right hand, it remains that the Spirit necessarily sits at the left. Yes, if the Father were circumscribed by place; otherwise, with him there is neither left nor right. Therefore, the Son sitting together, the Spirit also sits together, since he remains in him, that is, in the Son. Such a good did this hospitality of Abraham merit for him, that even the Holy Trinity came down upon him and granted him the fruit of the womb, at least ^A in the time of old age; for Sarah was so advanced in years that she even laughed upon hearing of this. After these things, Abraham becomes a wanderer on the pretext of famine; from there he comes to Gerar, arrives at Egypt, and is again deprived of Sarah, and by Abimelech—for he wished to take her for marital union, as she was very beautiful, and she was even more declared to be the sister of Abraham. For if Josephus says that Sarah was the cousin of Abraham, yet according to the Mosaic history, she was from the same mother, but of a different father. Therefore, concealing the one, so that he might not be killed, as if he were her husband, he said the other, that "she is my sister." Truly great-souled was Abraham. For having gone down into Egypt twice under the pretext of famine, and twice being deprived of Sarah, by both Pharaoh and later by Abimelech himself, he bore the deprivation nobly; for having once decided to follow God, he did not wish to meddle curiously in his ineffable dispensations. For which the divine rewards followed him in turn.

^A Furthermore, that most evil custom of the Sodomites persuaded them to display their lewdness even toward the angels themselves; wherefore they also became the object of unquenchable fire. For those Sodoms, which stood so fair and beautiful, are in truth nothing but ash (for even the very air together with the waters there is set ablaze)—a clear token that their punishment continues eternally. These things concerning Palestine, Ascalon, and Gaza, lying above near the outlet of the Jordan, did not differ at that time at all from the paradise of old. Therefore, let he who does not believe in hell reflect upon Sodom, and thus let him flee gluttony; for such is it accustomed to generate such passions. In accordance with this, Moses also said to Israel: “When you have eaten and drunk, take heed to yourself, lest you forget the Lord your God.” Moreover, Galen, that most excellent of the art of medicine, shows that luxury itself is the cause of such passions. In our Mysia, which is adjacent to Pergamum, he says, one would rarely find a woman committing adultery, and even rarer to find lewd men accustomed to the most unspeakable amours, but in Rome, because of the prevailing and common luxury, these things are easy to commit. But if, as Ptolemy says, because some are affiliated with the first trigon of the zodiac—that is, the ram, the lion, and the archer—they do certain nefarious things, and think they do nothing abominable because they are under signs that are masculine in front but feminine behind, is God then unjust for having reduced Sodom to ashes by fire? But it is impossible that the Just One should ever be unjust. For such people, living in the abundance of bread as the Scripture says, and not being [so disposed] because of such a trigon, having rolled themselves into lawless beds, have reasonably become the fuel for fire. We learn, therefore, from this that on that day the righteous, just as Noah and Lot were here, will be found above these tortures, while sinners, even if they should be the entire world, will be subjected to almost eternal punishments, just as here all those who did the worst things were delivered to the flood and fire.

^B Now Abraham was called Abram at first, which is said to mean “a crosser”; for as it seems, his mother named him thus by divine providence, since he was to cross the Euphrates and dwell in Palestine. Abraham was seventy-five years old when he received the promises. He begat Ishmael when he was eighty-six years old. And when he had reached the age of ninety-nine, God appeared to him, saying: “I am God.” Then the righteous man was circumcised, serving as a canon set before all. And that the boldness of the righteous who are in the cities is the cause of God’s long-suffering toward us, you may learn from the very history of Sodom itself; for He says: “If I find ten righteous men, I will not destroy the cities.” And often, even because of the virtue of those who have departed, or even because of the world itself, [Next page begins: λέγων· ο Υπερασπιῶ τῆς πόλεως ταύτης δι' ἐμὲ καὶ διὰ Δαβὶδ τὸν παϊδά μου. » κεία…]

^A saying: "I will defend this city for my own sake, and for the sake of my servant David." And with what long-suffering He cares for the lives of the living, and how... But how is Abraham called faithful, having said to God: "By what shall I know that I shall inherit it?"—namely, Palestine. The expression "by what" is not that of one who is disbelieving, but of one longing to learn the manner of the inheritance. For countless nations inhabited Palestine at that time. And because of this, God said after the sacrifice: "Know for certain that your seed will be sojourners in a land not their own, and they will afflict them for four hundred years; but in the fourth generation they shall return hither, for not yet have the sins of the Amorites reached their fullness." Besides, there were some among them who were devout; this is clear from both Melchisedech and Abimelech. And regarding these, let it be said in this manner ^B regarding the present.

Melchisedech, although spoken of in Scripture as being without father and mother, nevertheless drew his lineage from Sidon, the son of Egypt, who also founded Sidon. Having built a city on Mount Sion, Salem, and having reigned therein for thirteen years, he fell asleep, a just man and a virgin. This is the celebrated...

Now Abraham, with Sarah, begat Isaac, and with Hagar, Ishmael; and Isaac, with Rebecca, [begat] Esau and Jacob, who, because of the impiety of Esau, migrated to Laban, his mother's brother, from whom he also took his daughters, Leah and Rachel, as wives. This Jacob, therefore, begat the twelve patriarchs, that is, the twelve tribes of Israel.

It should be known that after the three men were entertained by Abraham, the two proceeded to the burning of the Sodomites, ^C who also reached the dwelling of Lot. The licentious Sodomites, learning of this, arrived there, seeking the strangers in order to satisfy their unlawful acts. Lot went out to meet them to the uttermost, and being greatly pressured by them, delivered up his own daughter to that defiling usage, only so that no such disgrace should befall the strangers. But the wicked ones would not be persuaded, and seeking the strangers with violence, they fought with Lot. The strangers opened the doors of the gateway, and appearing to them, they consumed everyone with fire alone. Stunned at what had occurred, Lot fell on his face and besought them to know who they were. They said to him: "Take all who are with you, and depart from this place; for tomorrow all will be burned, and the place will be winnowed and destroyed because of the [too] ^D small sexual immoralities of its inhabitants." Lot, doing so quickly, escaped to the mountain of Segor. And the Lord having rained fire, all were burned according to the prophecy of the angels. But the wife of Lot, being a woman and not fearing the command of the angels, and having turned to see what had happened, was immediately turned to stone and became a pillar.

...that the whole world was already lost, and no seed would be born to them anymore, they made their father drunk with wine, and he had relations with them, not knowing, because of the drunkenness, what had happened through him. When his uncle, the divine Abraham, learned of this from him, he was grieved and sent him to the regions of the river Nile to fetch three staves from it, as though to show that he was innocent, but in truth so that he might be devoured by wild beasts and thus expiate the sin. Lot, having run swiftly by divine economy, offered to Abraham three staves—that is, of cypress, of pine, and of cedar. And Abraham, marveling that he had been saved from the beasts unscathed, glorified God. Both went up with the staves to the mountain, and Abraham planted them on a rock, apart from one another, yet near, as if forming a triangle. He commanded Lot to go away and draw water from the Jordan and to water them daily; this he did. The mountain was about twenty-four miles from the Jordan. Within three months the staves sprouted. And Lot, having gone down, told this to Abraham. And having gone up to see what had occurred, they found that the three staves had united and had become one, though the roots were left behind remaining as they had been planted, separate. Abraham, seeing the event in the dry wood, fell and worshipped the Lord, and said: "This wood shall be for the sin, an absolution." The wood became a great tree, and it lasted even until the kingdom of Solomon. Abraham received assurance concerning the forgiveness of Lot's sin. When the temple of Jerusalem was being built, this tree was also cut down with the others, and having been hewn, it lay idle in the Temple, also by the economy of God. And when Christ and our God was about to suffer the saving passion for the world, He was crucified upon it by the Jews.

^A the renowned Jerusalem. And because he was descended from such an impure race, Scripture left him without a genealogy, even though some thought him to be God, as if he were without beginning and without end, clinging to the text and especially to the apostolic word which says: “Without father, without mother, without genealogy, having neither beginning of days nor end of life.” On this account he is called an image of Christ, who is without mother at the first, and without father at the second; and because He Himself, Christ, delivered the unbloody sacrifice to the disciples, he (Melchisedec) foreshadowed it from of old. And hear what he who is golden in tongue says about this: “God, foretelling the dissolution of the legal priesthood, said through David: ‘You are a priest forever according to the order of Melchisedec.’ Who did not offer legal sacrifices, but prayers and bread and wine, as history teaches.” On this account he is also called by Scripture a priest of the Most High God, a self-ordained priest, as the Gold-mouthed says; for such were the priests at that time also, in that he was sacrificing as Abel, as Noah, and the rest. ^B But if Melchisedec was a man, how is it said that he has neither beginning nor end? And it is possible to say that Scripture, by genealogizing those descended from Seth, does so thus: Adam, having become of such-and-such years, begets Seth, and Seth again, having become of such-and-such years, departs from here. The beginning of the days of Seth and the end of his life are therefore manifest from this. But in the case of Melchisedec, since it did nothing of the sort, it misled some to say he is without beginning and without end, and from thence to think he was a great power of God. Melchisedec was therefore king and priest, as has been said from above, because he was both a type and an image of Christ. Whence, if you wish, my beloved, to learn how great is the excellence of our priesthood, attend to the Gold-mouthed John. For in his fifth discourse against the Jews he says that our excellence of priesthood is shown even in the types. For Abraham was the father of Isaac, and the grandfather of Jacob, and the ancestor of Levi; for Levi was the son of Jacob, and from Levi the priesthood received its beginning among the Jews. But this Abraham, ^C the ancestor of the Levites, that is to say of the Jewish priests, held the rank of a layman under Melchisedec, who was a type of our priesthood. And he indicated this through both things, through giving tithes and because he received a blessing from him; for laymen both give tithes to the priests and are blessed by them. But Abraham, who received the promises, was also less than Melchisedec. And how? Because the less is blessed by the greater. But also he who receives tithes, Levi, has been tithed, as the

[THEOPHANE]S the Confessor and prefect of the Agri, gathered the remainder in writing up until the end of the reign of the emperor Nicephorus, he who was from the [family of the] Genikoi. Upon whose work Scylitzes began his own chronicle, starting from Michael Rangabe.

PART IV.

CONCERNING THE CONSTANTINOPOLITAN EMPERORS WHO RULED THEREAFTER.

^B247 At the time when Constantine the Great was leading his forces against Maxentius, he beheld the sign of the venerable cross in the air, whereby he emerged victorious in his subsequent encounter with the enemy. But later, having become negligent, when he rushed against the enemy once more, he was defeated. Having suffered this loss, he fell into sorrow and slumbered. In his sleep, he appeared to be struck on the nostrils by a certain rod; presently, blood flowing from his nostrils marked the sign of the cross upon his linen vestment. Having seen this, he was led to repentance for the act, and thus he became superior to his enemies again. Following these events, through his wife Fausta, he lapsed into the furious cult of the stars, but God drew him back again through leprosy; for when it had gripped the body of this great man, it pressed and tormented the individual in every way. There, upon the counsel of the priests of the Capitoline Jupiter, certain infants were ordered to be collected so that they might be slaughtered and he might be immersed in their blood, and thus purportedly be freed from the disease. But as he was passing by and heard the mothers of the infants lamenting, and learned the cause of their weeping, he said: "It is better that I suffer than that I should decree the death of so many infants." For which reason, by night, the apostles stood before him, telling him to summon Bishop Silvester. The holy man is therefore called, and after baptizing him, he frees him from the leprosy. The great emperor later struggled so much for the faith that he even changed all the customs, fasting on the fourth day and the day of preparation, resting on the Lord's Day, forbidding the Jews from buying servants, and no longer condemning anyone to the cross, out of reverence for the venerable cross of Christ. Among other things, he also renamed the days of the week, which were previously named after Saturn, Mars, and the other stars.

^DThe wife of the Great [Constantine], Fausta, daughter of Maximian, whom he caused to cast off her soul by the searing heat in a bath. The cause for this was her stepson [Crispus], because of the accusations of the stepmother.

^A Apostle says: "Even Levi, who receives tithes, paid tithes through Abraham his father," even though he was not yet born; for he was still in the loins of Abraham when Melchisedec met him. Observe, then, that the Jewish rites were a shadow and a figure. For if there were perfection through the Jewish history and priesthood, what need was there still for another priest to be raised up according to the order of Melchisedec, and not to be called according to the order of Aaron? Since, therefore, another priesthood was to come, it was absolutely necessary for another way of life to follow as well. And Paul, wishing to indicate this, said that when the priesthood is changed, there is of necessity a change of law. And these are the things taught by the golden-tongued one.

^B But when we pray and are not immediately heard, we must not grow faint; since even Isaac besought God for twenty years on account of their childlessness. For it says: "He besought God regarding his wife Rebecca, because she was barren." And when Rebecca was troubled while pregnant with both Esau and Jacob (for they leaped not a little in her womb, signaling, as it seems, the conflict that would later exist between them), the Lord said: "Two nations shall be parted from thy womb, and one people shall surpass another, and the greater shall serve the lesser." Observe then, for God clearly indicated the state of the Jewish and Gentile peoples.

Upon Isaac, a second famine occurs, for which he goes down into Gerar, though he is not permitted by God to go off into Egypt. For even if Abraham had been permitted to go down, it was for the sake of his virtue also being known to those there. Isaac sows barley, ^C and paradoxically it yields a hundredfold. And if the earth yielded a hundredfold for what was cast into it, how shall he who performs almsgiving and deposits what is given into the hands of God not receive a hundredfold reward? For if here one bears a hundredfold, much more so there. Isaac, when he blessed Jacob, was about a hundred years old; for this reason his eyes were dimmed. But Rebecca, after this praiseworthy theft of the blessing, advised Jacob to go away to Laban, so that he might escape the peak of Esau's fury. Therefore, fleeing from Esau, Jacob slept on the road and had a dream. And behold, a ladder was set up on the earth, whose head reached to heaven. And the angels of God were ascending and descending ^D upon it, and the Lord leaned upon it and said: "I am with you, and do not fear." Now those ascending and descending the ladder, as the great Cyril also says, [signify] the...

^A [The city] besieged by the Romans, and having endured the war for three years, was later captured, as the vital supplies failed its inhabitants. Its walls were razed, its civic rights withdrawn, and it was thus subjected to Perinthus; for Perinthus is Heraclea. Hence, the ordination of the patriarch has been assigned to the [throne] of Heraclea, such that the bishop of Byzantium is ordained by him.

^B Great Constantine, therefore, having renovated the wall built by Byzantas, king of Thrace, added another space, and thus named this city New Rome. This great city is finished, and indeed dedicated, on the 11th of the month of May, in the year 5808. At that time, Valens—a man purportedly most accurate among the astronomers—was summoned; he cast a horoscope, by which he auspiciously decreed that this city should endure for 696 years. From this point, therefore, the prediction of Valens is proven false, and his art is clearly shown to have failed. Seeing his city thinly populated, the Great [Constantine] brought over from Rome the most distinguished men; among whom are these: Olybrius, Berus, Urbicius, Callistratus, Zoticus, Eugenius, Eubulus, Studius, Florentius, Maurianus, Severus, and Isidorus, who built houses, churches, and xenones. By such means did Great Constantine relocate these aforementioned Roman men here. For, having taken their signet rings, he sent them to the king of the Persians, Sarbarus, whom they defeated and then returned; but during the time of their departure, he sent the rings to Rome and brought their wives here. ^C He also built 464 houses, according to the length and shape of those they possessed in Rome. Upon returning and learning of this drama, those men were astonished. Of these, four were masters, and eight were patricians. Know, therefore, beloved, that while the city was being leveled at the time it was being built, stones were hewn by stonemasons, which they placed as a bulwark against the violence of the sea, guarding the wall from near the Barbara [gate] to the Golden Gate itself. Similarly, he also transported here the monolith column [that now stands] in the Forum, and established upon it that statue which he brought from Heliopolis in Phrygia. This very stone was transported by sea for three years, and was being raised for an entire year where it now stands. After these things, having made Constans Caesar here and Licinius, his son-in-law, in Nicomedia, he campaigned against the Persians. This Licinius began to stir up a persecution against the Christians. It was then, indeed then, that he killed the bishop of Amasea named Basileus. It was then, indeed then, that serpents in Melitene fought against each other so fiercely that the land was left seething with their slaughter. Then also the synod in Nicaea was held, in which the great and simple-in-speech Spiridon overcame the invincible Eulogius the Hellene. Such a synod also ordained that we celebrate Easter according to the custom now prevailing; for previously Easter was performed according to the fourteenth day of the moon, whence the holy and ecumenical second council, in its seventh canon, calls those who celebrate in this way "quartodecimans" and "tetradites." For they did not celebrate Easter on a Sunday, but whenever the fourteenth day of the moon occurred, on whatever day it happened to fall, [provided it was] complete. They celebrate when others are fasting and keeping vigil. Know also this, that Constantius, the son of Great Constantine, having turned Arian, hastened to overthrow the first synod. Learning of this, the Pope of Elder Rome reported it to Constans, the brother of Constantius, and he threatened his brother with war by letter if he did not cease shaking the orthodox faith. Upon which, by counsel of the emperors, a synod was [convened] in

^A divine ministry; for of these Paul also said: "Are they not all ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for them that shall be heirs of salvation?" ^B Through these He showed clearly that He manages all things by angelic powers, and that nothing here below is without providence or happens by chance. And do not ask me, why did holy Scripture say first that the angels ascend, and after that, descend? For you possess the holy Scripture itself, which clarifies the account of this matter for you. Each of the men possesses a divine angel as a guardian of his own life, so that from this even the impulse of the demons against us is checked ("The angel of the Lord shall encamp round about them that fear him," for He says), and our petitions are brought up to God through them. And let the Lord Himself persuade us in the Gospels, saying: "See that you do not despise one of these little ones; for their angels always behold the face of My Father who is in heaven," ^C doing nothing else, as the renowned patriarch Nicephorus says among the patriarchs, than bringing our petitions into the ears of the Lord Sabaoth. Most divine Raphael confirms these things to Tobit, saying thus: "When you and your bride prayed, I brought the memorial of your prayer before the holy God, and now He has sent me to heal you and your bride Sarah." But also the divine angel who was sent to Cornelius the centurion spoke thus ^D to him: "Cornelius, your prayers and your alms have gone up for a memorial before God. Call Peter from Joppa." If these things are so, if, as has been demonstrated, each of the men possesses an angel bringing our petitions into the ears of the Lord Sabaoth, it is of necessity that the angels must first ascend, and through them our petitions, and then afterwards the divine gifts from above must descend to us. For it was for this that blessed Jacob saw angels ascending and descending; for through these, as has been said, being ministering spirits, all things here are managed and conducted. And so much for these things. But God encourages Jacob returning from Laban, and fearing Esau, and again He wrestles with him until morning, persuading him from this [event] not to fear; for if he was strong with God, much more [would he be strong] with men. This Jacob also declared, saying: "I have seen God face to face, and my soul was saved," that is, the soul which was as if dead from fear was filled with courage. At that time he is also renamed Israel, as having been in the vision of God. Jacob, however, waking up, was limping, as the history shows. But so that the care of God for him might not be extinguished after the passing of the righteous man, He wisely devised [a way to preserve] the memory of this...

^A Sardica, by 341 fathers, confirming the holy Creed; and Sardica is what is now called Triaditza. The Great Constantine later sent Arius to the Great Athanasius so that he might receive him into communion; for he asserted under oath that he held the right faith. But the Great one would not receive him; on account of which they removed him from his throne, for those who leaned toward Arianism had prejudiced the imperial ears, and spoke much evil of the holy man. How great an evil, therefore, it is from that point on to accept accusers and to pass judgments against the accused, the events that transpired between the holy Emperor and holy Athanasius demonstrated. But he suffered the same things under Constantius, for which, having taken refuge with a certain virgin, he continued to be hidden by her for six years. After his death, ^B he returned again. When Julian, who followed, threw everything into confusion, the holy man again took refuge near the temple of Sarapis. Crows were cawing. Being asked by the Greeks, "What are they crying out, you evil old man?" he said, "The 'cra' in the Syrian tongue signifies 'tomorrow'; for tomorrow you shall see the providence of God." Upon which the death of that wretch was announced.

The Great Constantine, however, reigned in Rome for 12 years, here for twenty, and he died in Nicomedia while setting out against the Persians. He ended his life through the treachery of his half-brothers, who poured poison into his drink, with a star—as they say, a comet—foreshadowing his death; for it is customary in such things for comets to appear in the heavens frequently, and the great Basil, declaring this, said, "Comets appear, bearing signs of the succession of kings." Now, the monk Alexander, in his history concerning the finding of the precious Cross, says that holy Constantine died in Nicomedia seized by a mortal illness, and that he was baptized then; for he postponed it, as he says, wishing to receive the divine washing in the Jordan. ^C But this seems truly improbable. For it appears more truthful that he was baptized in Old Rome by holy Sylvester. For even if some Arians contend that he was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia because it happened that he passed away there, the baptistery of the Great one in Rome clearly presents the truth, especially since it was impossible for him to be excommunicate during the council held at Nicaea; for how could he have either prayed with or concelebrated with them, holding such a position? Therefore, to say and to think thus about the Great one is most absurd.

How much the holy soul of the Great Constantine was given to condescension and to forgiving the weaknesses of many is evident from this, too. Written accusations were brought to him against bishops; and he immediately burned the papers, saying, "If I saw a priest sinning, I would cover him with my chlamys, so that God might also cover my sins." And Severus, as has been said ^D above, gave the first structure to the hippodrome, but the Great Constantine provided the porticoes, the steps, and the rest of its embellishment. From Nicomedia, Antioch, and other cities, statues were brought into it; for at that time the veneration of them had been abolished. In these, many things concerning future events are also inscribed. And the Manganas themselves were built by the Great Constantine; for all the military equipment and books of engineering were stored there. The Great Constantine, having found the prisons of Byzantium in the strategic headquarters, also kept them there, and this lasted until Phocas. A certain patrician widow, Mare by name, having taken pity on those who were imprisoned because of the stench they endured, gave her own house to the emperor by way of payment/reward, and it became what is now called the Praetorium. And regarding these matters, this much is so.

perpetuate this. He says: “The sons of Israel shall not eat the sinew of the thigh, which has withered.” And it is possible to learn here that the cause of the majority of the observances is this: that they should not forget God and His benefits, ^B and as being indeed ungrateful. But also Jacob, separating from Laban and being about to meet Esau, sees a camp of angels, so that from this he might take courage and not fear those with Esau.

Laban, after the completion of the twenty years, having promised to send Jacob away with wages, was delaying, persuaded by certain persons; wherefore also to Leah and Rachel Jacob said: “I see the countenance of your father, that it is not toward me as yesterday and the day before. But the God of my father was with me.” ^C And it is clear that to Laban pursuing Jacob, a dream stood by saying: “Guard thyself never to speak anything evil to Jacob.” Great is the benefit of the presence of a just man. And it is clear from what Jacob was saying to Laban: “God has blessed you for my sake.” But on account of his wives he was making such a defense to him: Not I, but the love insituted for their husbands persuaded them to depart from their own land. According to Georgius, however, ^D Jacob, returning from Laban, again saw a vision in Bethel, and having tithed all that he possessed, he sets aside his children last. And having numbered them, beginning again from Benjamin, and having come to Levi, since he found him to be the tenth, he brought him to God, tithing him; and all that he had previously acquired, as also having promised, he said to God in fleeing: “All that You shall give me, I will tithe a tithe of them to You.” And immediately, having clothed Levi in priestly vestments, through him he offered sacrifices to God in Bethel. And thence those of the old covenant are called Levites, but those of the new are called clerics, because it has been written: “There shall not be to the Levites a portion, that is, a lot, among the sons of Israel; for the Lord is their portion and lot.”

Regarding the Mosaic history, we find that Esau and Jacob were reconciled to one another; but Josephus adds these things to the history concerning these matters. ^A Isaac, being about to finish his life, spoke concerning harmony to Jacob and to Esau. But when he had died, Esau pursued Jacob. He, having entered into a certain city and looking down from above, reminded him of the paternal instructions. But he was not persuaded. And stretching his bow, he shot Esau in the breast. Then therefore the prophecy of Isaac was fulfilled: “Whenever you shall take off the yoke of your brother from

your neck, you shall commit a capital transgression.” These things are from Josephus, but it is not right to accept them as true. For the words, “You shall commit a capital transgression,” are an addition by Josephus; for such a statement is not found recorded in the prophecy. And so much for these things.

After these, Sardanapalus also rules over the Assyrians, living in an entirely soft and luxurious manner, shut up within with eunuchs and women, not being seen by any of those under him, and by means of colors, dyes, and the cutting of his beard, making himself effeminate, so that from this he became detestable to all. And not one of those under his hand was able to see him, though he wished to. Once, therefore, having attained his desire, he pushes a sword against him, and miserably deprives him of life.

After Sardanapalus, the son of Picus, also called Zeus, Perseus, rules over the Assyrians, who, having conquered the Lycaonians and built a city there, and having set up his own stele, called it Iconium from his own image. Then, having come to Isauria and Cilicia, and having climbed down from his horse and struck the sole of his foot upon the ground, and having built a city there, he named it Tarsus. On account of his name, therefore, he called the Assyrians Persians. During his reign, fire fell from heaven, and having built a temple over it, he taught them to worship the fire. Therefore the first kingdom was that of the Assyrians, or Babylonians, and the second was that of the Persians, who were also called by the common name of Babylonians.

Know also that during the reign of Phoenix, the Tyrian philosopher Hercules flourished, who was the inventor of the purple shell. For having seen the wool that had been wiped off by a shepherd dog, and having understood that it was not blood, but a substance for dyeing (for this dog had happened to find a shell-fish by the shore and eaten it), he brought it as a gift to the king. The Phoenician, therefore, was the first to wear the purple, and he ordered no one else to wear such a color, and thus the king would be recognized by the purple robe; before this, the king had seemed like the common people. This was discovered in Tyre.

When Croesus, having received an oracle, crossed the Halys, Cyrus hurried into flight, but his wife restrained him, saying to bring the captive Daniel and learn everything through him. Which indeed happened. And thus that man took courage. And calling for Daniel with his whole bodyguard, he said to him, “Thus says the Lord concerning the good Cyrus: ‘You shall also conquer Croesus.’” Which also happened. [alt-version omitted]

^A For he set the camels in front of the battle line, and when the opposing horses turned to flee, Croesus was captured, and four hundred thousand men perished; for they could not cross the river, which had overflowed beyond measure.

After Cyrus came his son Darius, then Artaxerxes, under whom there was a certain man in Italy named Palas. He built a house and called it “Palatium,” whence the royal residence is called a palace. This is Georgios’ account; but Zonaras records the following about this: “The residence of the emperors was called a palace because Caesar dwelt on the hill called Palatinus, where Faustulus, who raised Romulus, lived; and for this reason, even if he stays anywhere else, his lodging keeps the name of palace.”

After these things came Romus, who founded Rome, and his brother Remus. These men built a temple to Zeus and named it the Capitol of Rome, which means the head of the city. However, Romus, having murdered Remus, and seeing the people rioting, was the first to institute equestrian games in honor of the sun and the four elements. But even so, the city was troubled. Having asked the oracle why the city was shaken so much, he heard: “Unless your brother sits with you, the city will not be at peace.” Having made a golden statue of his brother, he sat him down with himself and reconciled them.

^B When the son of Artaxerxes, Ochus, occupied Egypt, its king, Nectanebo, changed his clothes and fled to Macedonia, having foreknown the occupation of Egypt through lecanomancy; and through his sorceries he became known to Philip and his wife, Olympias, and, having had intercourse with her through devices, he begot Alexander. Philip, having reigned over Macedonia and subdued Thessaly, founded a city in it and called it Thessalonica. After him came Alexander. When he set out against the Persians and the Medes, he requested an alliance from the Jews. And not receiving it (for they had treaties with Darius not to wage war against him), he marched against them. The high priest, for the sake of causing astonishment, put on that wondrous robe and met Alexander; and the latter, smitten with fear, dismounted from his horse and fell before the high priest. As the Gentiles were astonished, he said: “I do not worship the priest, but the God honored by him; for in such a form I also saw God encouraging me against the Persians.” ^D Wherefore he offered a sacrifice there to God.

Thus our chroniclers, who place another Darius as successor to Cyrus, and Artaxerxes under Darius, and say that Palas lived in Italy under his reign, from whom the palace is said to be named, even though Romulus lived two hundred and fifty years before Darius and Artaxerxes, and Pallas the son of Evander is to be referred to the times of Aeneas, some centuries before Romulus.

^A in the custom of patriarchs, he opposes the empress Eudoxia, and for this reason he endures many trials on his back. For when the great Epiphanius had come to the Hebdomon, against the will of John, he initiated many into the sacred rites and held assemblies; indeed, he had been preoccupied by the slanders devised against the holy man by Theophilus. And Eudoxia also incited the great Epiphanius against Chrysostom, saying that while the Roman empire was contained under her own power, this John alone pursued enmities and afflicted the empress with extreme injuries. Nor did he offend in this alone, but he also favored a certain opinion entirely abhorrent to the doctrine of the Church. For this reason, she said, she granted all power to Epiphanius to assemble a council and to remove John from his throne by the most just right. Having heard these things, Epiphanius replied: "If he holds some peculiar sect, that would be a matter for another place and argument. But if you have determined to drive John from the Church by public proclamation for this reason alone, that he has spoken reproach to you, you will by no means have Epiphanius as one who approves of your instituting." Eudoxia proposed these things to the aforementioned holy man because she had understood that some dissension had arisen between them. ^B After these acts, John, a most divine man, being proscribed for a second time and deported to Cucusus for the sake of exile, after he had spent three years and two months there, he was brought to Pityus, and there migrated to the Lord, having functioned in the office of bishop for six years and six months. Following these things, Innocent, Pope of Rome, sent a letter to Arcadius, written in these words: "The voice of the blood of my brother John, O emperor, calls out to God against you, just as it once cried out from Abel the just against Cain the fratricide. And you will pay the penalty entirely, who have not only done this, but have also moved a persecution against the Church of God and His priests in a time of peace and tranquility. You have expelled that great teacher of the whole world from the throne of his episcopacy without a trial, and together with him you have driven out Christ. And the blessed John has indeed left this life, having kept the faith and strengthened those who were wavering ^C as if by a storm of doubt, but he has entered into the inheritance of the pleasures and delights that shall never fail and of the perpetual life in the ages that have no end. But that new Delilah, who gradually binds you with the razor of deceit, has gathered curses upon herself and has tied up a heavy burden of sins, difficult to carry, and has added it to her previous atrocious and numerous transgressions. Therefore, I, the least of all, as one to whom the throne of the great apostle Peter has been entrusted and committed, separate you and her from the participation of the sacred mysteries of Christ our God..." ^D [Regarding the letter of Innocent to Arcadius, and the reply of the same emperor Arcadius to Innocent, and those supposed by an unskilled storyteller, [index: entries preserved] the entire history of those times, which we have arranged year by year in our Chronicles in historical and chronological order.]

^A This man, therefore, managed all things very wisely and skillfully; for, changing his attire, he would enter everywhere, and, having reconnoitered, he would thus conquer. He did this also in the case of the widow Candace. But he was caught; for she, having learned his customary actions (for he had eyes of different colors, the one blue, the other black), as soon as she saw him, said: "King Alexander, you have taken the world, but a woman has taken you." Having taken her as a wife, he went into Egypt, founded the great Alexandria, and then returning to Babylon, he died at thirty-two years of age, having reigned for twelve years only, the most prudent and courageous of all. For it was for this reason that the prophet foresaw him as a winged leopard, signifying his swiftness and sharpness, and his sudden flying over the civilized world with his trophies. It is said that he heard a certain philosopher say that there are infinite worlds, and he groaned deeply and said: "Alas, that since they are infinite, I have conquered not one." He was also admired for his temperance; for, having taken the daughters of Darius captive, he would not even endure to look at them, saying that it was unbecoming for one who had conquered men to be conquered by women. Likewise also in philosophy and quick-wittedness; for he was tutored by Aristotle. Being most warlike and daring, he saw a certain youth who had the same name as himself fighting cowardly, and said: "Either change your conduct or your name." ^B Therefore, he occupied everything quite prudently and skillfully; for, with his garment changed, he betook himself to any places, and having explored all things, he obtained victory easily. By the same art, he was intercepted after approaching the widow Candace; for when she had perceived his tokens and natural indications—that is, that one eye was blue and the other black—as soon as she looked upon him, she said: "You have indeed occupied the world, King Alexander, and a woman has captured you." Therefore, having taken this as his wife, he set out for Egypt and founded that great Alexandria. Departing thence, he returned to Babylon and, aged 32 years, he passed from human affairs, having reigned but twelve years, a man undoubtedly the most wise and valiant of all. For which reason the seer records that he saw him in the form of a winged leopard, wishing in this way to show his impetuosity and swiftness, and that he suddenly flew over the whole world with his victories. They assert that he once heard it from a certain philosopher who said that there were infinite worlds. Then indeed, having uttered a great groan: "Is it so," he said, "that they are infinite, when I have not yet conquered one?" He also won great praise in the name of modesty and chastity. For when he held the daughters of Darius captive in his power, he would not even deign to look at them, because he said it was in no way fitting for one who had conquered men to be overcome by women. He obtained praises no less from philosophy and quickness of mind, as one who had heard Aristotle; and since he was very impetuous and daring in battles, having happened to see a certain youth of the same name who was fighting timidly: "Change," he said, "either this disposition and mind, or your name." ^C This Alexander, having arrived even as far as the interior Indians and the ocean itself and the greatest island of the Brahmans, whose wonderful life and whose piety and worship toward God he admired and was astonished at, in which place he also set up a pillar and inscribed: "I, the great King Alexander, reached as far as this." On that island dwell those called the Macrobians; for the majority of them live to about one hundred and fifty years because of the mildness of the air and the unsearchable judgments of God. There, fruit never fails throughout the whole time. There are the greatest nuts and spices difficult to obtain and the magnet stone; among whom there is no quadruped, no wine, no bread, no garment. They enjoy small fruits and water, dwelling near the river and worshipping God sincerely. And the men dwell near the river, but their women are on this side of the river Ganges, which flows past into the ocean toward the part of India. And the men cross over to the women in July and August, during which months it is cooler, with the sun rising higher toward us. For then, having become temperate, they are said to be moved according to the star. And having spent forty days with their women, they cross back again. After the woman has borne two children, they no longer cohabit. If anyone is found to be barren up to five years, ^D When he had reached the extreme Indians and the very Ocean and the greatest island of the Brahmans, he marveled at their piety and worship toward God, and set up a column with an inscription of this sort: "I, King Alexander, have penetrated as far as this." In that island dwell those who are called Macrobians, from their longevity. For the people there for the most part live to the age of 150 because of the exceedingly suitable temperament of the air and the unsearchable judgments of God. At no time of the year are ripe fruits wanting. They abound also in the largest nuts and in spices, which we redeem at such a price, and in the magnet stone. They possess no four-footed beasts, neither wine nor bread nor clothes. Dwellers toward the light, they are content with small fruits and water, and serve God with a pure and upright religion. The men dwell on the banks of the river, the women live on the other side of the Ganges river, toward India, which river in fact discharges itself into the Ocean. In the months of July and August, the men cross over to their wives, because it is cooler for them, with the sun rising more sublimely toward our horizon. Then, naturally, having attained the best temperament of body, they are said to be aroused by a certain oestrus. After 40 days spent with their wives, they cross over again in turn. The women, after they have brought two children into the light, have no further intercourse with the men. But if any woman is found to be barren for five whole years, by a certain religious observance, from intercourse...

thenceforth she remains apart for the sake of piety. The river itself, however, is difficult to cross because of the Odontotyrannos animal; for this is an amphibious creature of immense size, such that it even swallows elephants, although it does no harm to these men as they cross over. In the more desert places there are dragons about seventy cubits long, scorpions a cubit long, and ants the size of a palm. For this reason those places remain uninhabited. But elephants also graze there in herds. Further inland there are men who eat human flesh. Among the Chaldeans it is legal to marry one’s mother and to defile one's sisters and daughters. Among the Agilaioi the women have authority over the men and commit fornication as they please, without jealousy from their husbands; and they perform farming, building, and all masculine tasks. In Britain, many men sleep with one woman, and many women with one man. The Amazons have no men, but like the animals, they mate with their neighbors in the spring, and having celebrated a great festival, they return home; and at the time of birth, they kill the male offspring and raise the female. ^A When they have brought the birth into the light, these customs among various and geographically separated nations, as if passed from hand to hand by their ancestors, gradually turned into laws, as the great Caesar wrote. After the death of Alexander, his kingdom was divided into many principalities and powers, and they did not cease to rise up against one another, until the Roman power abolished all these local lordships. And so much for these matters.

Now Jacob begat the twelve patriarchs: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, and the rest in order. He loved Joseph more than the others, both because he was the youngest and because of the virtue with which he was singularly endowed. Therefore, his other brothers were jealous of him. They were not only jealous for these reasons, but also because of the visions of which he had been a spectator. For he saw eleven stars, together with the sun and the moon, bowing down to him. The stars signified his brothers, the sun his father, and the moon his mother. ^B If someone asks how the mother is said to have bowed down, since she had died long before, let him hear that when Jacob went down into Egypt and bowed down, his wife is also said to have bowed down with him, because these two were one body. Thus, for this reason, his brothers were jealous of him. And, driven by jealousy, they proceed openly to a plot, and wishing to kill him, they cast him into a terrible pit. But by the counsels of one of their number—Reuben, since he felt kindly toward him—they lead him out of the pit, and according to Josephus’ history, they sell him to some merchants for twenty minae. ^C After this, they returned to their father and said they had not seen Joseph, but that they had found this tunic stained with blood and torn, so as to give the impression, perhaps, that he had been destroyed by wild beasts. Therefore, he is brought down by the merchants into Egypt, and as a slave ^D

^B After this man, Leo—his grandson and son of Zeno of Isauria—reigned for two years. For Leo the Great, having passed over his son-in-law Zeno, who was married to his daughter Ariadne, entrusted the scepter of the empire to his own grandson. After this Leo had departed from human affairs, his father Zeno, who also bore the surname Isaurian, reigned for 16 years. After he had come to the empire, he was plotted against by his mother-in-law Verina, as one who did not administer the empire according to her counsel, and he fled to his own homeland. On account of this, Verina’s brother, Basiliscus, presided over affairs for two years. He built a palace in Constantinople and named it the Palace of Basiliscus. However, after Basiliscus had tasted of imperial power for a very short time, he fell into the hands of Zeno, who had already returned from Isauria. Included with his wife in a certain rather sturdy tower, where no one had access to him, he was killed by starvation. Zeno, having returned from thence, as we have said, punished Harmatius—who had previously provided him with assistance against Basiliscus—with death, as a traitor to his own master; but he made Harmatius' son Caesar, just as he had promised. But not long after, having shorn his hair, he made him bishop of the Cyzicenes, even against his will. An astrologer once predicted to this emperor that he would die shortly, and that a man of the senatorial order would receive his empire and his wife. Having learned this, he put many to death who were either illustrious or wealthy. But he was unaware that he was fighting against God and His providence. For when Zeno had exchanged life for death and had left the empire, it fell to that Anastasius, who was a Dyrrhachian by homeland and was called "Dicorus": for he had one pupil that was black, and the other blue. In his reign, lightnings and thunders occurred around the palace, by which the emperor was dismayed, running to and fro for fear, until he finally perished in a certain chamber by divine vengeance. For the chamber collapsed and crushed and extinguished the emperor with its ruins. Also, a fire was seen in the heaven, portending, as it seems, the sedition that had arisen under him. For the logothete, with the city prefect, by order of the emperor, ascended the ambo, or pulpit, of the Great Church in order to chant the Trisagion with the phrase, "Who was crucified for us." But as soon as he had uttered the word "Us," he stirred up all the people against himself. And such a great urgency arose that they burned down houses, and slaughtered a certain leader and a stylite who were siding with the emperor's party, consuming their bodies even with fire; and they insulted the emperor to his face. This man saw in a dream a person holding a codex, saying to him, "Behold, because of your perversity of faith, I am erasing fourteen years from your life." And this indeed happened; for, struck by lightning, he died at the age of 88. He built the Mocesius cistern. Understand also that there are some who…

^A he is sold there. Not long after, he is lured into shameful loves by his mistress. But he would not be persuaded; for although he was a slave in body, yet he was free in his mind. For this reason he stirs her to anger. She plots against him, accuses him, and persuades her husband to cast him into prison. These things come to pass, and for thirteen years he was kept in confinement. Two others were with him in such a prison, a cupbearer and a baker; for whom, paradoxically, he foretold what was to come. And to the cupbearer, he declared freedom would come within three days; for he saw in a dream that through him grapes were being squeezed from three branches into a cup, and the king was gracefully receiving it from him. Whence he also said to him: "Do not disregard us when you depart on account of these things; for we have come into bonds having committed no sin, but we have been condemned to endure the lot of criminals for the sake of our chastity." And to the baker, who said that he was carrying three baskets upon his own head, two of which were full of bread, while the third contained baked goods and various foods, and that birds had flown down and were consuming everything, and who expected that he would receive a prophecy similar to that of the cupbearer, he said that he had but two days in all remaining in his life; for the two baskets signified this, and on the third day he would be crucified, and his body would be food for the birds. The king celebrates his birthday, and at that time those things of the prophecy come to pass. But the cupbearer forgets him. Two years pass by. ^B Pharaoh sees two visions in the night. The wise men of the Egyptians are at a loss regarding these. Joseph is called, at the urging of the cupbearer. The vision was of seven well-fed cows coming up from the river into the marsh; and others equal in number meeting them from the marsh, exceedingly wasted, and consuming the well-fed and large ones, and yet they were not at all benefited from the eating. And the second vision was of ears of grain; seven well-fed ones from one root, being consumed by another seven decayed and weak ones. Joseph was completing his thirtieth year at that time. He interprets the visions, is honored by Pharaoh, and is established as ruler of Egypt. Moreover, Pharaoh addresses him as Psomthophanichus, which is to say, the discoverer of hidden things. The history records that that famine came to pass because neither did the Nile rise then nor did dew descend from above. Joseph also begets two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim. And Manasseh signifies "forgetting"; for having prospered, he received a forgetting of his misfortunes. And Ephraim "repaying"; for he himself repaid the freedom to his ancestors. And these things indeed have this manner.

for he had attained such happiness that he had obtained oblivion of his former calamities. Ephraem signifies just as much as if you were to say "one who restores him," for he restored liberty to his ancestors. And these things came about in this way. ^A But the sons of Jacob, having heard what had been done by Shechem the son of Hamor regarding their sister Dinah, were stung—that is, they were grieved, and deemed the affair an indecency. Wherefore they also performed a work of slaughter upon the inhabitants of that place. Hence God permitted them to be afflicted for a sufficient time in Egypt. This, therefore, was the cause of their long and first captivity. Jacob, however, being sought by Joseph—when his brothers came to him on account of the need for grain—came down into Egypt with 75 souls. The Scripture sets forth the number so that we may learn how many they became from so many. Jacob himself, as Josephus mentions in his history, nearly expired from the unexpected joy, had not Joseph revived him; for even if he himself was overcome by pleasure, he was not in the same manner as Jacob. The Pharaoh, however, seeing the grey-haired Jacob, asks about his years. And he answered, saying: “The days of the years of my life, as I sojourn, total one hundred and thirty, few and evil.” These things he said because of the trials he had endured. After these things, he lived another 15 years to the consolation of the terrible things he had suffered before. And the ancients used to live a long time, so that the race might increase in the longer time. For this reason they also attached themselves to many wives. Immediately, therefore, even after the flood, they were long-lived. But since they filled the inhabited world, the number of years was henceforth lessened. According to the most divine Cyril, the years were lessened because nature itself had become weaker with time and was unable to reach out to more years. And they were long-lived, for which cause the account has managed to say: but Josephus said that men became long-lived due to the food present at that time. ^C And Jacob begets, as has been said, the twelve patriarchs, from whom are the twelve tribes of Israel; for this reason that account also called them patriarchs as being rulers of the patriai, that is, of the tribes. But according to the great Epiphanius, there are thirteen tribes. For if there is no tribe from Joseph, yet those from his sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, are known as two tribes of Joseph. Yet, with the tribe of Levi being excepted as one that does no work, they are twelve tribes again. And Jacob begets Levi, Levi begets Kohath, Kohath begets Amram, and Amram begets Moses and Aaron. And Moses is the sixth from Abraham. ^D Reckoning the genealogy from there, Job is found to be the fifth. This Job, according to the great Cyril

^A at the beginning of his temptation was seventy-eight years old, and having spent seven years in the affliction, he reached the age of eighty-five. And whence is this evident? From the years given to him after the affliction. For since God later gave everything to Job in double measure, of necessity He also granted him double the years of his life. Therefore, the halves of the one hundred and seventy are eighty-five. From this, then, the total years of Job are found to be two hundred and fifty-five. But if the Scripture says ^B the entire time of his life was two hundred and forty-eight years, do not be surprised; for the author did not join the seven years of his affliction to the time of his life, since he did not reckon the time of the affliction as a time of life on account of the deadening caused by the suffering. Thus, blessed Job seems to have assigned the names to his daughters in demonstration of the goods later granted to him by God; for in accordance with the reality, he applied the names to them. And the first he called Day, as if after a certain deep night from the hardships that surrounded him, a bright day had shone upon him; and the second he named ^C Cassia, as if he were already living in a certain fragrance and enjoyment of good things; and the third he called Amalthea’s Horn, as if he were henceforth overflowing with every good thing. For the ancients called abundance the "horn of Amalthea"; for it is said that there was a certain goatherd who had a goat named Amalthea, which by digging with its horn revealed a treasure to its master. And it is said, "There were not found, according to the daughters of Job, others more beautiful than they under heaven." And why this? So that by the sight of them, the memory of the suffering might be completely erased. And Job received ten children after the affliction, because he had ^D lost those ten also. If the Scripture says that Job received everything double, do not be surprised. For all other things—camels, mules, herds of sheep, and all such things—he received double according to the Scripture; for these things are all mortal and will not rise again then. But the children, it is agreed, will rise again then. Wherefore he receives only ten here after the affliction. For he will recover those others that he lost, so that from this he has twice ten children, that is to say, twenty. Rightly, then, the Scripture said that Job received everything double after the affliction. And Amram, as has been said, begets Moses, and they immediately throw him into the river, having first placed him in a crate, because of the fear of Pharaoh; for he ordered the male children of the Hebrews to be killed in order that they might not subjugate anyone through their number. But the daughter of Pharaoh, walking along the shore, and seeing the crate, commands it to be taken out.

^A Then, having learned where the child came from and how he had been thrown into the river, she takes him from that same person and gives him to be nursed. Thus, he comes to manhood. He sees a Hebrew being oppressed by an Egyptian; he does not endure it, kills the Egyptian, and hides him in the sand. After this, he sees two Hebrews arguing with one another and attempted to reconcile them. But they said to him, “Who set you up as a ruler over us? Do you wish to kill us, as you killed the Egyptian yesterday?” Hearing these things, therefore, and being fearful lest he be found out, Moses departs from the borders of Egypt and flees to the desert. Then he sees God, and from there he is sent to Pharaoh to lead out the people. These things the Mosaic history relates.

Josephus, however, adds these details about this matter: One of the ^B sacred scribes (for they were clever in the truth regarding future events) announces to the king that one would be born to the Israelites at that time, who would humble the sovereignty of the Egyptians, and, having been raised, would increase the Israelites, would surpass everyone in virtue, and would acquire an undying glory. The king, fearing according to that person’s counsel, orders every male born to the Hebrews to be thrown into the river and destroyed, and orders the Egyptian midwives to watch the birth-pains of the Hebrew women; for he commanded that they alone should act as midwives for them. This plan was intended for the infants born to be destroyed by them. The child, therefore, is born according to the prediction, eluding the guards because of the gentleness of the pains and because the mother did not suffer violent pangs in birth. And for three months they feed him secretly in their own home; then Amram, fearing lest it become known, ^C makes a papyrus basket of some kind, and having coated it with pitch, he places the child in it and throws him into the river. Then Thermuthis, the king’s daughter, playing by the river and seeing the basket, sends swimmers, and they bring it to her. And seeing him, she loved the child exceedingly for his size and beauty, and she worries about how he might be nursed. But he would not accept an Egyptian woman. From which point Miriam, who was present, saying that the child seeks his own kindred, encourages her to bring a Hebrew woman. Hence, his own mother is cleverly called. She gave him his name according to the occurrence; for the Egyptians call water *mo*, and *yses* are those who have been saved from the water. He was the seventh from Abraham. And when he was three years old, God raised the height of his stature in a wonderful ^D way. And no one was so unrefined that, having seen Moses, they were not struck by his beauty. From which point Thermuthis, being barren, makes him her own. Whereupon she also brings him to the king and tells him everything, and that "He will be your successor," and since he was not a child of your own

there was no one who, upon seeing Moses, did not stand amazed at the remarkable elegance of his form. Hence it happened that Thermutis, herself being barren, adopted him, brought him to the king, and explained to him the whole sentiment of her mind, namely, that this man would be the king's successor, seeing as he had no son born of his own. And having said these things, she placed the infant into the hands of her father, who presently adorned him with the royal diadem. ^A Then Moses, with a certain childish simplicity, pulled it from his head and trampled it with his feet. Having seen this, that man, most learned in the Sacred Letters, rushed to kill the infant, and exhorted Pharaoh that this should be done entirely. But Thermutis anticipated him and spirited Moses away. From that time he was being educated most excellently, and his virtue became known even to the Egyptians themselves, who, when they saw that the Ethiopians were at some time undertaking an expedition against them, they also opposed their camps to the hostile camps. Since not a few were falling on both sides, it was suggested to the king by a certain divine instinct that he should grant Moses to his own people as a leader and commander. Moses allowed this duty to be imposed upon himself, and led his forces against the Ethiopian enemy; and because he was about to traverse a certain desert ground, in which there was a great abundance of harmful reptiles, he devised a certain remarkable thing. He saw to it that some round baskets were made, and having thrown ibises into them, he carried them with him; for ibises are most hostile to serpents, which indeed flee when they approach, and if they resist, they are swallowed up just as if [they were] by stags. And the ibises are entirely tame and gentle, and rave savagely only against the genus of serpents. With their help, therefore, Moses traversed the otherwise inaccessible land; he joined battle with the Ethiopians, who were living on a certain island [that was] difficult of access because it was closed off by rivers flowing around it on all sides. Then Tharbis, the daughter of the king of the Ethiopians, who saw Moses fighting most valiantly, was captured by a vehement love for him, and sent her most faithful servants to him for the sake of indicating the affection of her mind; at the same time, mention having been made of marriage, she promised the betrayal of the city. ^B Moses assented to these demands of hers; the nuptials were celebrated, the Ethiopians were killed, and the Egyptians were led back to their ancestral soil. From that time Moses was exposed to envy, the Egyptians fearing lest he should at some time stir up new things against them as well. These things having been observed, Moses withdrew himself, and having learned that the ways and journeys were being obstructed everywhere by guards, he consulted for his own safety by instituting a flight through the wilderness. Thence he arrived at the well where the daughters of Raguel were watering their father's flock. Presently, the things which Moses had done were reported to Raguel—who he was, and in what manner he had not hesitated to succor the daughters of the man himself. Moved by these things, he took Moses as his son-in-law. Moses, affected by such benefits from Jothor (for that was the cognomen of Raguel), lived with him and grazed the father-in-law's flock. And when he was leading it around near Mount Sinai, God [was seen] by him [as he was] ^C

"κτῆνος, καὶ τελευτῶν αὐτίκα οἱ βάτραχοι, κἂν ὁ Φαραὼ θεασάμενος ὅτι γέγονεν ἄνεσις, ἐπαίρεται καὶ πάλιν εἶναι σκληρός. ^B Τρίτη δὲ πληγὴ ἡ τῶν σκινιφῶν ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν Αἰγύπτου γένεσις. Ὁ γὰρ Κύριος εἶπε πρὸς Μωσέα · « Εἰπὸν Ἀαρὼν, ἔκτεινον τὴν χεῖρα, καὶ πάταξον τῇ βακτηρίᾳ τὸν χοῦν τῆς γῆς, καὶ ἔσται σκινίφες ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις καὶ ἐν τοῖς τετράποσιν. » Ἐποίησε δὲ ταὐτὰ Ἀαρών, καὶ οἱ ἐπαοιδοὶ οὐκ ἠδυνήθησαν, καὶ εἶπον · « Δάκτυλος Θεοῦ ἐστι τοῦτο. » Ὁρᾷς ὅτι ἀσθενῆ τὰ τῶν μάγων, καὶ ἀδυνατοῦντα πρὸς τὰ θεῖα καὶ ἄκτιστα; Τετάρτη δὲ πληγὴ ἡ τῶν κυνυμιῶν. « Κἀγὼ , φησὶν ὁ Κύριος, παταξω ἐν σοὶ καὶ ἐν τοῖς θεράπουσί σου καὶ ἐν τῷ λαῷ σου κυνυμιὰν. » Ἐπισημήνασθαι δὲ δεῖ, ὅτι ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ πληγῇ διεχώρισε ὁ Θεὸς τὴν γῆν Γεσὲμ, ἐν ᾗ ἦσαν οἱ υἱοὶ Ἰσραήλ, ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς Αἰγύπτου, ἵνα μὴ ἐκείνοις συμπαθῶσι τῆς πληγῆς οἱ Ἰσραηλῖται. Πέμπτη δὲ πληγὴ ὁ θάνατος τῶν κτηνῶν Αἰγυπτίων. « Ἰδοὺ , φησὶν, ἡ χεὶρ Κυρίου ἐπὶ τὰ κτήνη τὰ ἐν τοῖς πεδίοις, καὶ ἔσται θάνατος μέγας σφόδρα. » Ἕκτη δὲ πληγὴ τὰ ἐλκή. « Λάβετε, φησὶν, ὑμῖν πλήρη τὰς χεῖρας αἰθάλης καμιναίας, καὶ πασπάσει αὐτὴν Μωσῆς εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἐναντίον Φαραὼ, καὶ ἔσται κονιορτὸς ἐπὶ πᾶσαν τὴν γῆν Αἰγύπτου, καὶ ἔσται ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀνθρώπους καὶ ἐπὶ τὰ κτήνη ἕλκη φλυκτίδες ἀναζέουσαι. » Ἑβδόμη δὲ πληγὴ ἡ τῆς χαλάζης καὶ τοῦ πυρὸς ἐπιφορὰ, καὶ ὅτι τῇ χαλάζῃ πῦρ ἐμίγνυτο. Ὀγδόη δὲ πληγὴ ἡ τῶν ἀκρίδων ἐπίθεσις. Ἔνατη δὲ πληγὴ τὸ σκότος τὸ ψηλαφητόν. Δεκάτη δὲ πληγὴ ὁ θάνατος τῶν πρωτοτόκων Αἰγυπτίων.

ΤΜΗΜΑ ΔΕΥΤΕΡΟΝ

PARS II.

AB ADAMO USQUE AD CÆSARIS IMPERIUM.

PART II

FROM ADAM UNTO THE EMPIRE OF CÆSAR

^A God’s Moses, and the frogs die immediately, even though Pharaoh, seeing that there was a respite, remained in his former disobedience. The third plague is the producing of lice from the dust. For it says: "Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, exactly as the Lord spoke, and he struck the dust of the earth, and the lice came to be upon both men and upon four-footed animals." Know therefore that the creature of the lice, even if it is very small, is nevertheless most troublesome; for it not only ruins the surface of the skin, causing unpleasant itching with its unseen bites, but it also forces its way into the interior through the nostrils and ears. In addition to these things, it also harms the pupils of the eyes by flying into them. Likewise, the enchanters of the Egyptians also tried to bring forth the louse, and they could not. Therefore they said to Pharaoh that this is the finger of God. The fourth plague is through the dog-fly. For as it says, "The Lord acted, and the dog-fly came in a multitude into the houses of Pharaoh and into all the land of Egypt. And the land was grievously destroyed by the dog-fly." For this creature indeed grows into bodies through its bite. When you hear "dog-fly," understand the audacity of the animal; for flying in like an arrow, it was stinging only the Egyptians. And the Scripture, indicating this, says literally: "And I will distinguish the land of Gesem, upon which my people are, upon which the dog-fly is not there, so that you may see that I am the Lord thy God of all the earth. And I will make a distinction between my people and between your people." Moses therefore prays to God concerning these things, and he took away the dog-fly from Pharaoh, but he did not wish to send them away. The fifth plague is the destruction of four-footed animals. "For behold," says Moses to Pharaoh, "the hand of the Lord is upon all your cattle, and there is a very great death. And the Lord did this word, and all the cattle of the Egyptians died, but of the cattle of the children of Israel not even one died." The heart of Pharaoh was therefore hardened, and he did not send away the people. The sixth plague is the infliction of blisters, as it says: "The Lord spoke and Moses took the soot of the furnace before Pharaoh, and he cast it up to heaven. And there became ulcers, blisters boiling up on both men and four-footed animals, and the sorcerers could not stand before Moses because of the ulcers. And the Lord said to Moses: Rise up early, and say to Pharaoh: Unless..."

thou let my people go, I will put forth my hand and smite thee, and I will slay thy people. And for this cause thou hast been kept, that I might show my power in thee, and that my name might be declared in all the earth. ^B The seventh plague was that of hail and fire. For the Lord rained hail upon all the land of Egypt, and the fire ran along upon the ground. And the hail smote all that was in the field, from man even to beasts. But in the land of Goshen, where the children of Israel were, there was no hail. ^C And so Moses prays again to God according to the word of Pharaoh, and the noises and the hail ceased. Know, however, that the Egyptians were struck with terror not only by the extraordinary descent of hail along with fire, but also by the strangeness of the phenomenon itself; for Egypt does not experience winter, because it is not far from the torrid zone; for the fiery heat flowing secretly from thence is wont to make everything in the surrounding region mild. The eighth plague was that of the locusts. For Moses lifted up his rod toward heaven; and the Lord brought in a south wind all that day and all that night, and it took up the locusts, and brought them upon all the land of Egypt. Whereupon Pharaoh said to God: I have sinned. Then Moses prays again to God, and he brings out a wind from the sea, and cast all the locusts into the Red Sea. Concerning these, David also says thus: He spake, and the locust came, and the bruchus, of which there was no number. ^D Now the bruchus is the newly-born and wingless locust. The ninth plague was that of the palpable darkness. For Moses stretched forth his hand toward heaven, and there was darkness and gloom and a tempest upon all the land of Egypt for three days. No one saw his brother, and no one rose from his bed for three days; but all the children of Israel had light in all their dwellings. For because they had left the Creator and were worshipping the creatures, through the creatures He most justly chastised them. For because of this, while other regions were shining with light, Egypt alone was surrounded by the palpable darkness. For indeed, when an Egyptian was constrained to go out for some necessary reason, he could not find the door, even though he felt about much. The tenth plague was the death of the firstborn. This plague was the last in order of time, but in power and in the pain it caused, as David also says, it was the beginning and the first of all. For about the middle of the night, and without sickness, their children were being slain. And rising in the morning, and seeing their most beloved dead, and being no longer able to hold

themselves back, they cried out to Pharaoh, at which point he also released the people, albeit against his will.

But regarding these things, beloved, do not resist, nor say, "If God hardens the heart of Pharaoh, why does He blame him for being hardened?" Know that the delay of the scourges was the cause of the hardening for him, as the great Basil says. For He did not take his heart when it was yielding and obedient to His commands and turn it toward being hard and disobedient. By His longsuffering, therefore, He caused it to become hardened all the more. For observe how, whenever He brought the plagues upon him, he promised to release the people, but when He released him from the torments, he was hardened. The Scripture also indicating this said: "But Pharaoh seeing that there was a respite, he hardened his heart, and did not hear them." But also when God Himself says: "For this very reason I raised you up, so that I might show my power in you, and so that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth." Do not say, with irritation, "For the sake of your own reputation, do you punish a man?" Dismiss these thoughts, and attend to this example. The art of medicine, striving to do something beneficial for human nature, used to dissect living men. But this was itself unjust, that for the salvation of others, living men were sacrificed. What, then, did the ancients do? Taking the one condemned to suffer death because of robbery or sorcery, they would cut him open while alive, neither wronging the one being punished nor failing to discover an aid to human nature. They cut into him while alive, then, so that while the innards were still quivering, they might ascertain their activity. Thus, then, even the master-craftsman God shows great signs through the incurably sinful Pharaoh, both punishing the one worthy of punishment and bestowing the most excellent healing upon those who came after, providing that one's punishment as a cause of salvation for them. And concerning these matters, so be it.

^C After the tenth plague, the Hebrews sacrifice the lamb and thus depart from Egypt on the fourteenth day of the moon. Wherefore even now, according to custom, they still sacrifice in this way, calling the feast "Pascha," which signifies "passing over." But as Josephus says, it is because on that evening God, passing over them, cast the plague upon the Egyptians. The Hebrews then, fleeing and having no abundance of supplies from the land because of the wilderness, were nourished by bread made of flour mixed and set only by a slight heat from them. And they used these for thirty days; for they did not suffice for a longer time.

barley. Then, the earth in Mesopotamia having split open, a mule came forth, signaling an incursion of enemies with a human voice. At that time, a certain eunuch named Nicetas, who held the highest position under Copronymus and knew nothing other than eating and drinking, was ordained patriarch. Once, while reading the Gospel in his cell, instead of saying “according to Matthew,” he uttered “according to Matthaion.” Whereupon one of those standing by said, “Do not divide the diphthong ‘ai.’” To him he replied with anger, “You are talking nonsense; my soul hates many diphthongs and triphthongs!” ^B The tyrant, returning from an expedition, developed gangrene in his legs, and died near the Strougylon, seized by a violent fever, saying only this at the end: “Living, I am delivered to unquenchable fire because of Mary; but from now on, let her be honored.” Know, beloved, that having searched many times for why he was called Copronymus, we found nothing other than this: there is a region called Kabala. Those who originated from there were naturally called Kabalinoi. He himself had his birth from there, and since by a certain custom dung is called kabalina, that basest of men was justly nicknamed Copronymus, as though he were carrying the name of dung within himself.

After him, his son Leo, from the Chazar, ruled for 5 years, being pious at the beginning. Afterward, he wore the ecclesiastical crown, from which he died, having been incinerated as if by a violent fever. At that time, that dog also existed which recognized the murderer of its master as he entered a tavern to drink wine. For after the murder of its master, the dog became a wayfarer accompanying a certain evildoer. The murderer, having chanced to enter there, was recognized ^C by the dog, and the dog barked at him so much that it caused suspicion about him. The murderer was subsequently held, brought before the magistrate, examined strictly, confessed against his will, and was finally executed as an evildoer.

After him, his son Constantine, with his mother Irene, ruled for 17 years, by whom piety was strengthened and monasteries were expanded. At that time also, someone excavating in Thrace found a sarcophagus on which was written: “Christ is about to be born of Mary the Virgin, and I believe in Him. In the time of Constantine and Irene, the pious emperors, you shall see me again, O sun.” This Irene, co-reigning with her son Constantine, and not bearing what was being done by him (for he had caused her to fall from power, although he repented and brought her back to the palace, and he cast out his own wife, who was chaste and very good, and introduced the union of another woman), for this reason blinded him while he was sleeping, so that from that time the sun did not give forth its pure rays for many days. But Empress Irene, having felt remorse for what she had done, ^D and wishing to wash herself clean of the hatred, emptied the treasures of wealth into the city and resolved its debts. Nevertheless, the all-seeing eye did not slumber; for, having tasted the pleasure of power for a brief time, she drank a cup that tasted of wormwood. For one of the senators, by the name of Nicephorus, a patrician by title from the generals, rose up and dishonorably displaced her from the kingdom.

This Nicephorus, therefore, ruled for 9 years, a man most murderous, a slave to gold, another Midas in every sense, making the offices available to those who would buy them. He seemed gloomy to everyone, but when they brought him gold, he appeared very charming. But he also imposed a heavy burden on the Byzantines, and because of the aging walls, he ordered the collection of the so-called “dikeron.” In addition to these things, the arrears owed to the army also prevailed. At that time, the relic of Saint Euphemia, which had been cast into the sea by Copronymus, was recovered on the island of Lesbos. And concerning these matters, thus it is. But Zonaras...

^A And the great Basil says these things concerning Moses: that he is the one testified to be handsome before God, even when he was an infant at the breast; whom the daughter of Pharaoh adopted and reared in the royal manner, having set over him the wise teachers of the Egyptians for his instruction; who, having despised the burden of tyranny and having returned to the lowliness of his own kindred, chose to suffer affliction with the people of God; he who was driven into exile by those toward whom he had acted well, and from there arrived in Ethiopia, and there spent his entire leisure from other things, and for forty whole years busied himself in the contemplation of beings; he who, having already reached his eightieth year, saw God as it is possible for a human to see, or rather as no other was privileged to, according to the testimony of God Himself: «If there shall be a prophet of yours to the Lord, I will be known to him in a vision and I will speak to him in a dream; not so as my servant Moses, who is faithful in all my house; mouth to mouth I will speak to him, in appearance and not in riddles.» ^B And after these things he is sent to Pharaoh for the sake of leading the people out from there. Having arrived, therefore, in Egypt, he took his wife and his children, and he entered. For this reason an angel also appears, frightening him; for he was not being sent there to live, but to lead out Israel. Which he himself, perceiving, sends away his wife. And it is clear from Jethro meeting him as he was coming out with his wife. However, he subjects Pharaoh, who was not persuaded to return the people, to unbearable scourges.

And why on earth did God permit the sorcerers to do the same things as Moses? So that the difference between falsehood and truth might be shown. For they, too, were changing their rods into serpents, but the rod of Moses swallowed the rods of those men. They also changed the water into blood, but they did not have the power to recall the water to its former nature. And they brought forth frogs, but they could not rid the houses of the Egyptians of them. ^D And while they were permitted to afflict the Egyptians, they were no longer permitted to stop the punishment. Rather, [God] brought the boils upon their own bodies as well, so that it might be manifest from this that not only are they unable to restrain the divinely-sent wraths, but they are also punished together with the others. Whence the magicians even said that the signs were happening by the finger of God. Let no one, therefore, marvel if the Antichrist, when he comes, performs signs and wonders; for even those magicians, both Zambres and Jannes, were changing rods into serpents. But Simon the magician also used to make statues walk, and by rolling into fire he was not burned, and he flew into the air, and he made bread out of stones; he changed form, he became double-faced, he was turned into gold, doors

^A in his chronological work says these things concerning this matter. Two accounts are circulated: for the one says that Saint Euphemia was delivered to the fire by Copronymus, even if he failed in his hope (for another body was burned in her stead), while the other says that she was cast into the depths and, by divine grace, was recovered near the island of Lesbos. At that time, while Nicephorus was thus managing the affairs of the empire badly, there was a tumultuous uproar among the people and much sedition. At that time, too, they compelled Bardanes the commander to don the imperial power. Whereupon, fearing the uncertainty of fortune, he approached a certain seer to learn his future, and indeed he learned unerringly everything that would come to pass. However, divine justice pursued Nicephorus because he had sent the great Theodore the Studite into exile, despite the latter speaking on behalf of justice and the canons; for having campaigned against the Bulgarians, he fell in the war and was beheaded. He left the scepter to his son Stauracius. But Stauracius also was quickly removed from the midst, having been wounded by a spear in this same battle, having reigned for two months. After him, Michael Rangabe reigned, ^B the son-in-law of Nicephorus through his daughter Procopia, for four years and nine months, a man worthy of the empire; for besides other things, he also restored those saints who were in exile. Scylitzes, however, makes this Michael the beginning of his own chronological work. The aforementioned Bardanes, ^C when he approached the seer monk at Philomelium, had as his companions Leo the Armenian, Michael the Stammerer, and a certain Thomas. And Bardanes, according to the monk's prediction, was blinded because he aspired to tyranny, while Leo later and Michael became masters of the empire. However, the loss of the empire by Michael Rangabe happened in this way. There was a certain household slave girl belonging to Michael; she would be seized by fits of madness at the time of the lunar conjunctions. Whenever she was held by the spell, she would go to the Boukoleon and cry out loudly to the emperor, "Come down, come down; depart from what is alien!" This happened many times. The emperor was astounded. He consulted about this with a certain kinsman of his named Theodotus. And he, as soon as the girl became possessed by the demon, questioned it and learned to whom the palace belonged and what its signs were. And it was Leo the Armenian. Much time in the middle passed, and the Armenian, being a general, was sent by Michael to the East. Then the military revolted and rose up against Michael. Finally, he donned the hairshirt and willingly stepped aside from the empire.

that were closed, he caused to open of themselves; he caused domestic vessels to appear as if carried of themselves for service; he caused many shadows to go before him, which he claimed were the souls of the dead. Being sought once by the Caesar and becoming afraid, he fled, having cast his own form onto another. But if this man accomplishes such and so many things by the cooperation of Satan, he will have nothing new at all for the time of the consummation, having found an instrument even more suitable than Simon himself—namely, the Antichrist—and through him he will perform greater signs and wonders. For the Apostle himself discusses this very thing regarding the Antichrist, saying, "whose coming will be according to the working of Satan, with all power and signs and lying wonders." ^B

Pharaoh, then, is subjected to ten plagues. For what reason, then? Because the number ten is perfect. Therefore, he who has sinned perfectly is also punished perfectly. For after the death of Joseph and of the Pharaoh who ruled over the Egyptians, another ruler arose for the Egyptians, and one who was very bitter, and he too was called Pharaoh. For just as the kings of the Romans wished to call themselves Caesars, as if acquiring for themselves the glory of the one who had been sole ruler, Julius Caesar, so too the rulers of the Egyptians wished to be called Pharaohs from that first Pharaoh.

Concerning the Decalogue to Moses

1. "I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. There shall be no other gods for you besides me. You shall not make for yourself an idol nor any likeness of all that is in the heaven above, and all that is on the earth below. You shall not worship them, nor shall you serve them. You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain."

2. "Honor your father and your mother, that it may be well with you because of them. And pray to inherit the prayer of your father and your mother, and you shall be long-lived in your old age."

3. "You shall not commit adultery, you shall not act lewdly, you shall not steal, you shall not bear false witness, you shall not make a slander against your neighbor." ^C

4. "You shall not desire your neighbor's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his field, nor his oxen, nor his beast of burden, nor any of his creation, nor all things that are your neighbor's."

5. "Remember the seventh day of the Sabbath to keep it holy. Six days you shall do all your work. But on the day of the Sabbath you shall do nothing, neither you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your maidservant, nor your beast of burden, nor your ox, nor the stranger who dwells in your house, nor your bondman; but all shall rest in your house; and you shall go to the holy place, and learn the law and the commandments, and you shall be blessed by the priest, and [receive] ransom."

6. The Lord spoke to Moses, saying: "Speak to the children of Israel, and you shall say to them: A man who curses his God shall receive a great sin. Whoever blasphemes the name of the Lord shall be put to death; all the congregation of the children of Israel shall stone him with a stone, whether he be a stranger or a native."

7. "From the presence of a gray head you shall rise, and you shall honor the person of an elder, and you shall fear the Lord your God." ^D

8. "If a man strikes his father or his mother, let him be put to death. For fathers shall not be put to death for [the sins of] their children, and children [shall not be put to death] for their fathers. Each shall die for his own sin. And whoever insults his father or his mother, let him be put to death; for he is a murderer."

9. "You shall not receive a vain report. You shall not join with a lawless man to be an unjust witness. You shall not be with the many in wickedness."

10. "You shall not have pity on a poor man in judgment. You shall not pervert the judgment of a poor man in his cause. From every unjust word you shall withdraw. You shall not kill the innocent and the righteous, and you shall not justify the wicked for the sake of bribes. For bribes blind the eyes of those who see, and pervert just causes. You shall not do injustice in judgment; you shall not show partiality to a poor man, nor shall you respect the person of a powerful man. In justice you shall judge your neighbor. You shall not walk with guile among your people, and the earth shall be shaken by the blood of your neighbor."

534 Being sent into exile, he stood upright and would offer a greeting to someone. Having been asked what this meant, and to whom he was offering the greeting, he would say it was to Theophanes the Confessor, the abbot of the Field, because he welcomed us with candles and incense. Upon these things, Leo, reflecting on the monk’s prediction regarding himself, kept Michael in bonds, since such a man was even more bold and shameless. Wherefore, a vote was taken by the senate for Michael to become fodder for the fire. This would have indeed come to pass, had the Augusta not prevented such a thing, perhaps putting forward as intercession the holy birth of Christ which was present at that time. Leo, however, being terrified by dreams and oracles and other such things, hastened his execution; but he also said to his spouse, “Michael is already being finished off because of you, and you and those from you will soon know why.” Not long after, Michael, emboldened by the prediction of the aforementioned monk, plotted an ambush against Leo, having revealed this even to Pappias, who was guarding him. Thus it was that by night he brought in armed soldiers together with the chanters. And Michael was raised to the imperial throne, though his feet were held by an iron shackle; but Leo, who had fled to the holy church, he cut down mercilessly with swords. Therefore, after Leo, the stammering Michael reigned for 8 years, he who originated from Amorium and was impious, yet he did not force the pious to be impious. Upon this, the saints were released at that time, and the great Theodore was brought back from his exile; for the Armenian had forestalled him by exiling him and doing many evils, inasmuch as he defended the holy icons. During the reign of this Michael, a certain Thomas, having gathered a heavy force from the East and the West, and having made not a few triremes, campaigned against the Queen of Cities. So great was his power that he reached the extent of breaking the chain that was suspended on the acropolis and went towards Blachernae. For three whole years, then, the matters of the war were beaten out. Then Thomas was defeated, fled, and came to Adrianople. He was kept under watch there in a circle by Michael for a sufficient time. He gave up, even though unwilling; he was seized, his hands and feet were cut off, he was set upon a donkey, saying only this: “Have mercy on me, O true emperor.” After Michael, his son Theophilus reigned for 12 years and 3 months. At that time, he made a selection of maidens, one of whom was Kasia, whom he sent away because of her answer full of wisdom; for having offered her an apple, as if he had fallen in love on account of her beauty, and saying, “From a woman flowed the base things,” he heard from her that from a woman also flowed the better things. Wherefore he took the Paphlagonian Theodora as his wife. Every week he would ride on horseback through the market to the church in Blachernae; for even if he did not pay honor to the holy icons, he kept his faith to the Savior and the Theotokos herself, as he used to say. He would also inquire about the goods for sale in the market, and if they were being sold for a high price, he would become angry at the Eparch. To him came a woman wronged by Petronas, the kinsman of the Augusta; for by raising a certain dwelling, he was harming her who was his neighbor. Petronas had indeed been spoken to, but he did not rectify it. Wherefore he was punished severely, and the dwelling having been torn down, all the material was given to the woman. When, having looked out, he saw the Empress’s cargo ship, he ordered it to be committed to the flames, saying, “The Lord having shown me to be emperor, you are forcing me to be a shipmaster? Besides, if we are hastening to acquire for ourselves things from commerce along with the royal prosperity, from where would private citizens procure the things for life?” So magnificent an emperor was Theophilus that he even fashioned some marvelous devices. For spirit, sent up from there in a certain mechanism, would echo music

^A

Regarding the Law and the Desert Journey of the Israelites

He was occupied with the promulgation of the law to the people. Therefore he ascends the mount of Sinai. There he passes eighty days, as Georgius has recorded, abstaining from food. For he ascended the mountain twice—the second time when he had broken the tablets he had previously received from God, having been angered justifiably against those who had made the calf. Having descended from the mount to see the people acting lawlessly, how could he have partaken of food, unless he had immediately ascended again and propitiated God? On account of which it became necessary for him to fast for eighty days—for he ascended the mountain twice, since he had smashed the first tablets, judging that impious and lawless people unworthy of them.

Such are the views of Georgius, and this is his mode of reasoning. But I do not know if the actual events transpired just as he has supposed. For if this were the case, Moses would not have said in Deuteronomy, "Forty days I did not eat bread and did not drink water." He ascended the mountain twice, indeed, and he fasted twice; but in the days between these, he appears to have eaten bread and drunk water. For if this were not so, he would have said in Deuteronomy that he fasted eighty days, not forty, which is the number expressed there.

And this opinion of ours is supported by the golden orator. For ^B in his discourse on the beginning and entrance of the holy Quadragesima, he says the following: "For lest it be thought that the Lord assumed flesh by mere appearance, He fasted for forty days, equal to Moses and Elijah, and no more." For if Moses had managed to fast for eighty days, as Georgius says, without touching food in any way during those days, golden-mouthed John would by no means have said that the Lord fasted an equal number of days to Moses.

Besides these things, you ought to know that even if someone commits a sin for the sake of some perceived benefit, he is not therefore guiltless. For Aaron, who carved the calf for the people in order to keep them in check, was not entirely worthy of pardon; on account of which he needed divine philanthropy to escape punishment. And Moses, manifesting this, said: "I prayed to the Lord for Aaron my brother, and he did not die." This man, who was granted the vision of God face to face, equally as the angels, as the great [Basil] says. ^C

These things and many others God ordained for Moses. And Moses was on Mount Sinai for forty days and nights. But the people gathered and sacrificed to the calf, which Aaron had made by smelting.

Amalek. And after these things, Amalek came with thousands and myriads to join battle with the Hebrews, who were under arms. Moses went up the mountain and stretched forth his hands in prayer. And when Moses lifted his hands on the mount, he would rout Amalek. But when he grew weary and lowered them, Amalek would rout the Jews. ^D Upon these things, notice that Aaron and Hur, having paid attention to this, entered, one on the right and the other on the left; and they supported the hands of Moses aloft, and thus, in the end, Amalek perished. And the saying of David was fulfilled: "The sinner is caught in the works of his own hands." And when the Jews had reached the desert of Kadesh, the serpents were devouring them, and they were dying. Then Moses, having fixed the bronze serpent crosswise on high, the serpents that were biting ceased; but also, as many as were bitten by the serpents, by looking intently upon the bronze serpent, were delivered from death.

^A Basil, by reason of the contradiction at the water, is commanded to go up into the mountain of Abarim, which was also called Nabo, and to see the land of promise, and thus to end his life there. For God does not allow his death to be made known, that those who had worshipped the calf might not take his bones and declare them to be divine. Yet, that this most divine man Moses was buried by holy angels, the great Epiphanius says. For even if the devil stood by at that time—as ^B Judas says in his catholic epistle—seeking after him as a murderer and as one who died in contradiction, yet the archangel Michael withstands him and says to him, "The Lord rebuke thee." If these things are so, where shall we place the things of Josephus, or how shall we accept them? Nevertheless, these things must be added to what has been said above for the sake of elucidation. For he brings forward Moses, at the time of his death, speaking these very words to the people: "Fellow soldiers, since it has already seemed good to God, and by reason of old age, one hundred and twenty-five ^C years having been completed, I must depart from life, I suggest to you even now the things that are necessary; I myself depart rejoicing in your good things." And as he went to where he was about to disappear, all went weeping. As he was embracing both Eleazar and Joshua and speaking with them, still on the mountain of Abarim, a cloud suddenly stood over him, and he vanishes down into some ravine. And Josephus, at times, thus appears to be mythologizing. But Moses, at his end, lays his hands upon Joshua the son of Nun, even though it had been testified beforehand that he had the Holy Spirit. From ^D which, indeed, custom has prevailed that the high priests lay hands upon those being ordained, and so they partake of divine grace; for He says, "And thou shalt lay thy hands upon him." When this Joshua was fighting for the Gibeonites (for some made war against them as if they had defected to Joshua), a miracle occurred regarding the sun in the midst of the heavens; for it stood still from its forward motion for the space of an entire day. But if you, like others, are gripped by the dilemma of why the generation of the Hebrews, exiting from Egypt, wandered forty years in the wilderness, hear: for in the book of Numbers the cause is clearly set before you. When those sent by Moses for the reconnaissance of the land of the Canaanites returned and intimidated the people to such an extent that they even murmured much against God, apart from Caleb and Joshua, God said: "Ye shall not enter into the land for which I stretched out my hand, but Caleb and Joshua the son of Nun, and the children whom ye said would be for plunder. But your carcasses shall fall in this wilderness. And your sons shall be grazing...

^A in the wilderness for forty years, and they shall finish your journey until your bones be consumed in the wilderness, according to the number of the days in which ye searched the land, forty days; and ye shall know my wrath." For together with other things, the scouts brought forth this also for the corruption of the people: "There we saw the generation of Enaq, men of surpassing height, giants, in whose presence we were as locusts." They even brought back from there a cluster of grapes of such size that it had to be carried on poles. That the Israelites, being chastised according to divine wrath, spent such a long time in the wilderness, the great Cyril also testifies in his words, in that book which he inscribed *On Worship in Spirit*, stating: Because the Israelites offended God with their roaring, they wandered through the wilderness for forty years. For God confirmed with an oath that He would not bring them into the Land of Promise. And David set forth this oath of God, saying: "I swore in my wrath, if they shall enter into my rest." The limit of this wrath was defined by as many years as were explained above; and when those had elapsed, it was entirely extinguished. Then their children crossed the Jordan and entered the promised land, that divine indignation not exceeding the fortieth year. There was also a figure of this in that those who had sinned received a number of stripes. For after that number, the time of liberation succeeds, which carries with it the mystical crossing of the Jordan; for they also crossed the Jordan after forty years. Now this Joshua the son of Nun was previously called Auses, but after he had returned from the spying he was renamed by Moses. To this Joshua, indeed, after the forty years ^B which the people spent in the wilderness, God said: "Circumcise the people with stone knives, and thus cross the Jordan." For Moses was not permitted to cross, although he asked God many things about this. For after he had spoken the words of the poem to the people, God said to him: "Go up into Mount Abarim. This is Mount Nabo, over against Jericho. And behold the land of Canaan, and die, in the same manner as Aaron thy brother died in Mount Hor, because ye were disobedient to my word at the waters of contradiction." That he begged God to cross the Jordan, he himself indicated when he said: "And the Lord looked down upon me for your sakes, and did not hear me; and the Lord said to me: Let it suffice thee, speak no more to me of this matter. Go up into the mount, and see with thine eyes, for thou shalt not cross this Jordan." And why was it that, because of a small transgression, Moses was ordered to see the land from afar, but was forbidden to lead the people in? The Master teaches us through these things that He requires extreme precision from those who are perfect in virtue—for as the Wisdom of Solomon says ^C, "The least one is deemed worthy of mercy, but the mighty shall be mightily tested."

^D That the transgression of Moses was deemed great, God himself revealed by saying: "Go up and die, because you disobeyed my word at the waters of contention." All these things were caused by distress. For the Jews, rising up against the divine Moses when he was despondent over the death of Miriam, and pressing him on account of the water, as is written in the Book of Numbers, forced him to utter that dubious voice. Therefore, set aside the accounts of Josephus, for they appear to contradict the Holy Scriptures in everything; for he died because of divine wrath, not because of old age, as that man claims. That it was because God was angry at the spies that the people spent forty years in the desert is also clearly shown in Deuteronomy. For when Moses spoke his final words to the people, he said, among other things: "We came even before to cross over and inherit the land of Canaan; but those perverse spies and the murmuring of the people caused them to wander in the desert." He said these things to them upon his second return, that is, when the forty years were completed. Pay attention, then; for it is evident from this that if it were not for the divine wrath arising from the perversity of the spies, they would have passed through the desert in a short time and crossed the Jordan. Therefore, walking through the desert for forty years, they ate manna, an unsown and unplowed food. For God rained it down every day, with the exception of the Sabbath, teaching them from this as well to do nothing on the Sabbath. For this reason, the manna that came down on Preparation Day was double, so that they might have food even on the Sabbath. If someone on a second or third day took from the manna and kept some for the following day, it was necessarily seen to be corrupted. For what reason? Because it was a transgression of the law. Teaching them to live a life free from anxieties, He promised to provide them with necessary food each day. But they, disbelieving, kept a portion of what was collected for the next day. This is why it stank. For that this condition was not of the nature of the manna is witnessed by the Sabbath, on which that which was collected and kept on account of it on the Preparation Day was preserved uncorrupted. It is also witnessed by that which was preserved for many generations in the ark. This manna was collected only in the morning; for when the sun rose, it would melt. This manna, however—as the most divine Nyssen says, taking his cues from the Wisdom of Solomon—was uniform, but the quality of the desire [was what arose in them...].

rendered it manifold, so that it tasted to each person according to the nature of his longing. Thus, too, the bread that descended from heaven, that is, the intelligible manna, is accustomed to be disposed according to the disposition of each person’s soul. This manna had the appearance of coriander, and they say its entire nature has the quality of a seed, so that even when it is broken down, its power to be sown does not disappear. Thus, too, the divine and spiritual manna, though scattered and distributed everywhere, is found whole and entire in every part. And why need I say much? Just as when that manna came down from above, the race of the Hebrews, being utterly astonished, said, "What is this?" ^B so too, concerning this intelligible manna, the bread of life—the Only-begotten Son of God himself, who descended from heaven and was seen upon earth—all were struck with amazement and said, "What is this? How did the Son of God descend to the earth? How did he wear flesh? How did he become a man?" And so much for these things.

After the death of Moses, God said to Joshua: "Moses my servant is dead; now, therefore, arise and cross the Jordan, you, and all this people." And when the kings of the Amorites who were beyond the Jordan heard that the Lord God had dried up the river Jordan, their minds were melted away, and there was no prudence left in them before the face of the children of Israel. And they suffered something similar to that which Jacob experienced ^C from joy, when he had gone down into Egypt and beheld Joseph; for from joy there comes a dilation, while from fear there comes a contraction of the power that gives us life, and in one way or another, death sometimes necessarily follows. After crossing over, they took Jericho without weapons, and for this reason they devoted it, that is, they consecrated it to God. But Achar, the son of Charmi, took a garment and a mass of gold from the things devoted to the Lord, and stirred God to anger. Joshua, therefore, having besought God and learned the cause of the wrath, buried him and his entire household with stones. In this war against Jericho, the Sabbath began to be broken; for they circled it for seven days with trumpets, ^D within which period the Sabbath was necessarily included. And when Joshua was fighting against the five kings, as has been mentioned above, the sun stood still in the middle of the sky and did not proceed towards the west until the end of one day. And Israel took all the possessions of the Canaanites in war, because it was done through the Lord. But also Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, destroyed the three sons of Enak, Sousi, Tholmi, and Schiman. These, too, were giants and very tall; for if this were not so, they would not have named them the sons of Enak.

^A You must know that the first law written among the Hebrews in Exodus is this: "You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself an idol, nor any representation of whatever is in the heaven above or in the earth below." There is no tautology here in "idol" and "representation," for the "representation" is an image of something—whether of a land animal, or a sea creature, or a bird—but the "idol," according to the exegesis of Origen, is a baseless mental construct, such as the cynocephalus worshipped by the Egyptians or the hippocentaur among the Greeks. Thus, you should also know in this place that the first law was written among the Hebrews in that book which is about the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt; and these are the first words of the law: "Thou shalt have no other gods before me. Thou shalt not make for thyself an idol, nor an image of anything whatsoever that exists either above in heaven or below on earth." There is no inept repetition of the same thing here; for "idol" and "image" do not mean the same thing, since an image is [the likeness] of either a terrestrial, marine, or flying animal, but an idol, according to Origen's opinion and explanation, is a mental concept that exists, such as that imaginary construct, the cynocephalus, which was worshipped among the Egyptians, or the Hippocentaur of the Greeks.

^B After Jesus the son of Nave, the people were governed by judges. The first of them was Judas, who overcame Adonibezec and cut off his hands and feet, he being a king of the Gentiles. For the Canaanites, after the death of Jesus, emboldened to overcome the Jews, entrusted the leadership to Adonibezec and marched against them. But they were disappointed in their purpose; for not a few of them were killed, and Adonibezec himself was captured. Being mutilated in his hands and feet, he said: "Seventy kings with their hands and feet cut off used to gather [scraps] under my table. As I have done, so God has requited me."

^C Also, Barach, along with Debbora the prophetess, judged Israel for forty years. Debbora was a prophetess. When she saw the Jews wishing to withdraw because of the multitude of Canaanites marching against them, she checked them and persuaded them to engage the enemy; and from this they killed many of them. For a heavy winter storm occurred which injured the Canaanites in the greatest measure, but did not hurt the Jews at all. Then Sisara, seeing the rout that had occurred, leaped from his chariot and fled to a certain woman named Jahel to be saved by her. Sisara, having asked for a drink, she gave him milk that was already spoiled. And having drunk more than enough, he fell into a deep sleep. Then indeed, Jahel killed him by driving a tent-peg through his temples. ^D And thus the victory fell to them according to the prophecy of Debbora. Therefore, Scripture rightly called Sousi, Tholmi, and Schiman the sons of Enak, giants. [alt-version omitted]

who, by reason of the size of their bodies and forms in no way resembling other men, were a wonder to behold and a terrible tale to hear. And even now the bones of these men are shown, which pass belief. At their age, namely that of Barach and Debbora, the wisest men among the Greeks, Prometheus and Orpheus of Thracia, were famous, as well as the physician Aesculapius and Lycurgus, the lawgiver of the Lacedaemonians. ^A They say that Aesculapius had acquired the medical art so accurately that he even restored a certain dead man to life; upon which accomplishment Jupiter, being angry, struck the man with a thunderbolt and removed him from human affairs. Wishing to demonstrate that all things happen by His power and not by the multitude of a people, God advised Gedeon, when he wished to attack the Madianites, to lead his army to the river at midday, when the heat was most intense; and to count those who knelt and drank as brave, but to consider those who drank hurriedly and with noise as doing so out of fear. Gedeon having carried out these instructions of God, three hundred men were found who, with trepidation, brought the water they had scooped with their hands to their mouths, as Josephus has recorded. ^B Whence God told him to attack the enemy with these same men. Thus, at night, they fall upon them, carrying trumpets in their hands as well as lighted torches inside certain vessels. And Gedeon, old with age, departs this life, leaving seventy sons born of legitimate marriage—because he had taken many wives—and one illegitimate son born of a concubine. From a divine promise, Manoas begets a child, who is called Samson, which, according to the interpretation of Josephus, signifies "strong." At that time, Hercules also flourished. So brave was Samson that when he had entered Gaza and stayed with a certain harlot, and was being watched by all the inhabitants of the town, he tore out the gates with their fastenings by his hands and thus departed the city. But even before this happened, upon undertaking a war against the Palestinians, he did something of this sort: It was summer, and the fruits had already matured so that the harvest was approaching, when Samson, having captured three hundred foxes, bound lighted torches to their tails and thus set them loose into the fields of the Palestinians. In this way their crops were burned. Those foreigners, after their fields were set afire, wage war against the Israelites, demanding the surrender of Samson. What, then, did the Israelites do? Fearing the attack of the enemies, they hand over Samson to them bound. ^C But Glycas, as I have already warned, does not aim to correct or refute these accounts, nor does he sincerely relate what the sacred pages report regarding the three hundred soldiers prepared for battle by Gedeon.

They surrendered him to those who had come upon him. But he, ^A seeing them rush against him, broke his bonds, and taking the jawbone of an ass, killed a thousand men of the Philistines. Hence, struggling in such a contest, he was consumed by thirst. He therefore prays to God, and at that moment He comforts him; for the jawbone produced an abundant flow of water when pressed by him. From this, such a spring appears even to this day in the suburbs of Eleutheropolis, called the Spring of the Jawbone. Now Josephus says that because he attributed the victory to his own strength and not to God, he was permitted to suffer such thirst. Yet this man, so mighty in strength, was later made a laughingstock by a woman. For after these things he loved Dalila, who was from the Philistines, who, having been bribed by the foreigners, asked him to tell her in what his strength consisted. And he, at first deceiving her, said: "If they bind me with seven moist sinews, that is, bowstrings, I shall be weakened and be like one of the men." She, taking the sinews, bound him, and then shouted: "The Philistines are upon you, Samson!" But he, rising, broke them. Deceived, she persisted and again asked to learn whence his strength came. And he, misleading her, said: "If they bind me with seven new ropes, my strength shall fail." She having done this as well, and having shouted: "The Philistines are upon you, Samson," he immediately broke them from his arms. Again, therefore, when she asked him, he said: "If you weave the seven locks of my head ^B and fasten them with pegs and nail them to the wall, I shall be weak and be like the rest of men." Having failed in this as well, she again implored him, so he reveals the secret, and says to her: "A razor has not come upon my head, for I am a Nazarite of God from my mother's womb. And if I am shaven, I shall be weak, and my strength will depart from me, and I shall be like one of the men." Dalila, therefore, having lulled him to sleep, shaved him, and having done this, shouted: "The Philistines are upon you, Samson!" But he, rising, could no longer exert himself as he had before. Accordingly, the foreigners fall upon him, and having seized him, they put out his eyes. But what happened after this? Samson wept to the Lord, and said: "Adonai, Lord of hosts, remember me now, and strengthen me yet this once, O God, and I shall take one vengeance for my two eyes upon the Philistines." Wherefore God did not overlook him, who was being mocked; for he was set before boys for laughter after he was blinded. Paradoxically, therefore, He strengthens him. Wherefore, while they were sitting and getting drunk (for they were celebrating for the sake of victory to their idols), he laid hold of the two pillars of the house in which they were sitting, and after seizing them said: "Let my soul die with the Philistines." Which also came to pass. From which God also shows that not [through his own power] ^C did it happen, but by the will of God through his prayer.

^A For He granted such strength to Samson that he was able to shake the pillars supporting the shrine of the idols, and to bring down the roof along with them, and to bury three thousand men, and an equal number of women. God does not overlook those who are wronged and call upon Him, nor does He abandon their benefactor into the hands of those who are hostile. The most divine Anastasius the Sinaite is greatly astonished at this, marveling at the ineffable dispensation and philanthropy of God, ^B contemplating how He deemed Samson worthy of the portion of the saved, even though he had delivered himself to death for the sake of those who had wronged him.

But it is not worth passing over for what reason Samson acquired such strength from his mother’s womb. Because the Israelites, having served the foreigners for forty years, had completely forgotten God, and there being no righteous man among them, for this reason God provided them from infancy with such a righteous and strong man, so that by seeing the salvation afforded to them through his virtuous conduct and marvelous bravery, they might amend themselves and seek out the God of all things. But they chose rather to be forgetful of God, ^C and they would cast the man who had done them such great service into the hands of the enemy. Hence, the providence of God quite reasonably abandoned them; for after Samson, there was no longer a judge among the Hebrews.

If, beloved, you also ask this: for what reason did God permit the daughter of Jephthah to be slaughtered (for he too was a judge among the Hebrews), hear the answer. The vow of Jephthah was exceedingly foolish; for he ought, as was likely, to have considered that a dog or an ass might first meet him, animals considered unclean according to the law. Therefore, God, instructing others through him so that they might make their vows with foresight (for he had promised to sacrifice to God whatever met him when he came out of the house), did not prevent the slaughter. ^D Yet the daughter was far superior to Jephthah; for seeing him rending his garments and lamenting, she said: "If you have opened your mouth concerning me, do to me in the manner that went out of your mouth, for the things for which the Lord has wrought vengeance for you against your enemies, the sons of Ammon."

Know also this, in addition to what has been said: that after the death of Samson, the tribe of Benjamin perceived the desire of the Sodomites, which is contrary to nature, and they lusted after those who were visiting as guests. A Levite...

who was dwelling in Jerudim, brought home a wife from Bethlehem, a concubine, who out of a certain faint-heartedness had returned to her parents. Wherefore the Levite also journeyed thither, and having been honorably received by his father-in-law, he took his wife and departed for Gabaa, a city of the tribe of Benjamin, and lodged with an old man who was a resident of that city. The people of Benjamin who lived in that city, having learned of this, surrounded the house of the old man and broke down the doors, seeking to commit acts of violence against the guest. The old man offered them his daughter, who was not yet married, and the guest’s concubine, to be used at their pleasure, begging them to spare the guest. But they would not be persuaded. The Levite also went out and handed over his concubine, and they abused her for the whole night and then sent her away. She crawled to the door where he was lodging and immediately gave up the ghost. Her husband, finding her dead, placed her upon his beast and brought her home, and having divided her into twelve pieces, he sent one piece to each tribe, proclaiming the lawlessness of the tribe of Benjamin. Upon this, Israel was enraged and they besought God. Consequently, they attacked them, and since they would not hand over the guilty parties for punishment, they slaughtered them and set the city on fire. ^A

The problem which Samson proposed to the Philistines was of this sort: "Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the strong came forth sweetness." By the sweetness he meant the honey, and by the eater and the strong he meant the lion, in whose dead body bees had fashioned honey, which Samson took and ate. But it is worth observing here, my beloved, that the Jews call us unclean in vain. For if we are unclean because we eat hares, swine, and other such things, which are not eaten according to the Law, it must necessarily follow that Elijah, the greatest among the prophets, is also bound by the same charges. For what reason? Because he ate bread received from an unclean animal, namely, the raven. And for what reason did these things happen, and why? That we might learn that even before grace was revealed, the Old Testament violated the commands of the Law. For if the raven is unclean, how did that great man Elijah receive food from it? How also did Samson, being a Nazirite and subject to the Law, eat of the honeycomb which bees had fashioned in the carcass of a lion? How, again, did God refresh a man afflicted with thirst by means of an unclean and blood-stained jawbone, if the raven, the lion’s carcass, and the jawbone of the ass are unclean? How did God heal his own servants by means of such things? And how, if they are unclean, did they receive common praise from the beginning? For He says, "God saw them, and said it was good." If, therefore, the swine is good as a creature of God, how is the same animal subsequently unclean? It is evident, then, that the Law of Israel was for a time. ^{B C D}

of the vital power breathed into him, it is not at all surprising if, having become corruptible from an incorruptible state due to the transgression. Do not, therefore, doubt any longer. For if from the beginning God made man from dust incorruptible, he was all the more able to make him corruptible from an incorruptible state, as we have already said. And do not tell me: "If Adam had already succumbed to corruption and mortality through sin, why did the fallen angels not suffer the same thing as the first-formed man? Why did they not also become corruptible and mortal through their fall?" Away with such talk, if you please, say nothing of the kind; for that Adam was not simple, but of ^A a double nature, consisting of soul and body. And according to his soul, he was akin to the immaterial and invisible powers, while according to his body, he was akin to this material and visible world; for this reason, having transgressed the divine commandment, he fell under death according to the divine decree, but not in both parts. But rather, according to that part which had been taken from the earth by God, for thus he heard: "You are earth, and into earth you shall go." However, the soul did not become mortal in the same way as the body, because it did not take its origin from the earth, though it did fall into countless passions, as seems to be the opinion of the Golden-mouthed [Chrysostom] concerning this. But what are these? Forgetfulness, ignorance, griefs, anxieties, despondencies, cares, and ^B whatsoever things of such a kind. Hence it was not appropriate to doubt any longer. For it is evident that, if the multitude of the fallen angels had also been composite, possessing their composition from both body and spirit, they would have suffered the same things as the first-formed man. Do not say, therefore: "If Adam was immortal, how did he become mortal, how did he become corruptible?" Let go of the "how"; for where God is, the "how" has no place. For God fashioned man for incorruptibility and established him as lord of all earthly things, and gave him everlasting immortality, as has been discussed above, and his affairs were indeed to stand thus for all ages, because the divine gifts are without regret. But when God saw him slipping into sin, and therefore falling from that ^C lofty and angelic way of life, he permits this, and it takes place against him.

^A except for Nebuchadnezzar? He will send his power and shall destroy them from the face of the earth." Upon which his head was cut off, truly wisely and methodically, by a woman, Judith, and all his possessions were plundered by the Jews. Then, and only then, did Achior also believe in God and was circumcised. In the days of the judges, a famine having occurred, Naomi departed from Bethlehem with her children into the country of Moab; and there they took wives, Orpah and Ruth. After ten years, the men having died, Naomi returned. Both daughters-in-law followed her. And Orpah, having been persuaded by the words of Naomi, returned, but the admirable Ruth was not persuaded, saying: "Thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God." And coming together, she was joined to Boaz and bore Obed, the father of Jesse, from whom came David. Among those taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar were Mordecai, his wife Esther, and others who lived under Artaxerxes. This Mordecai, having heard in the king's court two eunuchs plotting against the king, reported them to him; and they were put to death. Because of these things, Haman, who was the greatest before the king, being grieved, persuaded the king to attack the Jews and to send letters to the rulers of the hundred and twenty-seven provinces, from India even to Ethiopia, to utterly slaughter the Jews wherever they might be found on the fourteenth day of the twelfth month. Queen Esther learns of these things and, having fasted for three days, entreats first God, and then the king Artaxerxes himself, saying: "I saw thee, my lord, as an angel of God, and my heart was troubled from fear of Thy glory," and she fell down, fainting. But he urged her to ask what she wished. And Haman, having seen Mordecai in the courtyard, prepares to have him hanged on ^B towards the fourteenth day of the twelfth month, to slaughter—he learns these things Queen Esther, oversight—for being sleepless at night, he came to reading. Upon which he remembered what Mordecai had done for him. And he told his servant to bring the books of the daily records so that they might read to him. And he found the writings recorded concerning Mordecai, etc.

[LATIN COLUMN]

which they would undoubtedly have captured in war: but if not, it led to the fact that, once the war was set in motion, the head of Holofernes was cut off by Judith, and all his wealth was plundered by the Jews. Then Achior embraced the divine faith. He consulted to offer himself to Holofernes as his master, so that he might let that nation go. Having heard these things, Holofernes in turn interrogated Achior, asking whether there was any God besides Nebuchadnezzar: that he would surely send his forces and utterly destroy that nation. This plan of the woman was indeed cunning and turned out successfully. Achior embraced the divine faith and was circumcised. ^C Rush. 1, 16. ex V et F. Glycas did not consult the sacred text of Esther; for the words which pertain to the letter (for the day destined for the slaughter of the Jews was the fourteenth of the twelfth month, Adar) he joined with the following and rendered them in this way: "When Queen Esther had recognized this matter, at the twelfth month, complete (a), etc." The same also did not express quite conveniently the things narrated above regarding Naomi and her daughters-in-law, and those things which pertain to Ruth he attributed—by an intolerable error, or rather by an oversight and singular thoughtlessness—to Orpah, whom we know returned to her fatherland, while only Ruth followed her mother-in-law Naomi to Bethlehem. We have changed these things to the mind of the annotator. Otherwise, at the time when the judges were presiding over the nation of Israel, a famine having arisen, Naomi left Bethlehem and set out into the land of the Moabites. There, when the sons had taken wives, Orpah to wit and Ruth, and, ten years having passed, they had died, Naomi returned to her own land ^D with her daughters-in-law accompanying her. For Orpah did not want to obey her when she asked them to remain there, because she said she would acknowledge her nation as her own, and finally would have her mother-in-law's God as her own. In this way, having set out, she was married to Boaz with her mother-in-law, and bore Obed, the father of Jesse, the grandfather of David. Among others whom Nebuchadnezzar had led away captive were Mordecai and the woman Esther. When these were still surviving under the reign of Artaxerxes, it happened by chance that when Mordecai had discovered in the royal court the plots of two eunuchs initiated against the king, he reported the whole matter to the king, by which disclosure they were punished with death. Haman was offended by this, who had the greatest power before the king, and was the cause for the king to attack the Jews, and having sent letters to the governors of the hundred and twenty-seven regions, which regions are situated between India and Ethiopia, he commanded that however many Jews were found anywhere at all, they should be utterly put to death on the 14th day of the 12th month. When Queen Esther had recognized this matter, having completed a fast of three days, she first prays to God, then addresses King Artaxerxes with these words: "When I gazed upon thee, O king, as like unto a divine angel, my heart fell, struck by terror at the majesty of thy presence." and reaching the end, she contracted marriages with Boaz. Following at the beginning of the page, he erred in the interpretation of the meaning of that sentence: For Glycas looked to those words of the sixth chapter: which the vulgate interpreter rendered thus: "The king spent that night sleepless, and ordered the histories and annals of former times to be brought to him. When these were read in his presence, it came to that place where it was written how Mordecai had reported the plots of the eunuchs Bagathan and Thares who wished to slay King Assuerus, etc."

some were slain, others captured, and still others—whosoever had happened to survive in any way—yielded themselves up even against their will. He even occupied Achrida itself, in which town the royal palace of the Bulgarians happened to be; from there he took away great riches, namely jewels, pearls, and a hundred centenaria of gold.

Following these events, he set out for Athens, and after offering up to the Mother of God the thanksgivings due for his victory, and having adorned her temple with many splendid and costly votive gifts, he returned to Constantinople ^A. He celebrated his triumph by entering through the Great Gates, wearing a golden crown that had a crest and a peak on its upper part; preceding him were Maria, the wife of Vladislav, along with the daughters of Samuel and the rest of the Bulgarians. Thus, amidst trophies, he entered the church. At that time, the Patriarch Sergius implored him repeatedly to abolish that tax which was called the *Allelengyon*; for the Emperor had promised to do this if he should prevail over the Bulgarians. But he did not persuade him.

The Emperor, having accomplished all these things, wished to undertake an expedition against Sicily. But he was prevented; for he was seized by a sudden illness and died, and was buried in the church of the Theologian, ^B which is near the Hebdomon. He had enthroned Alexius, a monk from the Studion Monastery, as patriarch; for he happened to have come to visit him, bringing with him the venerable head of the Precursor—for the Emperor was accustomed to use him as a counselor in the administration of the commonweal.

After the death of Basil, the entire power of the empire was transferred to his successor and brother, Constantine, who reigned for three years. He did not decorate the empire by the example of his brother Basil; he was a man addicted to dancing-girls and buffoons. Moreover, he was so engrossed in horse-races, as no other mortal ever was, that he held all concern and care for the commonweal as nothing. If he found any men of any worth, he cast them down from their station ^C and blinded them, and in their place raised up to the magistracies others who were utterly foolish and laughable. He oppressed not only the poor but also the wealthy. For in the three years which contain the time of his reign, he demanded five exactions; of which his brother had previously remitted two for his subjects.

Following these things, seized by a sudden illness, he began to deliberate with himself whom he should leave as successor to the empire. When he was taught by some that the power would pass after him to Romanus, who was of the senatorial order and held the surname of Argyropulus, by a certain necessity ^D he ordered such a man to be summoned, and gave him the option—even against his will—either to divorce his lawful wife and be joined in marriage to the daughter of the Emperor and thus be proclaimed emperor, or else to lose his eyes through blinding. While Romanus remained dizzy and hesitant between the two, his wife, fearing lest he should suffer some terrible fate, of her own accord laid aside her worldly hair, and thus, along with his sight, she granted her husband the empire as well. Of the three daughters that the Emperor Constantine had, the first was rejected, and the third declined. Thus, one is joined...

^A Since he was sleepless during the night, he began reading, and thus he was reminded of what Mordecai had done for him. Hence, even against the will of Haman, he was exceedingly honored. Haman himself bore the culpability of the evil; for he was hanged upon a cross, at the request and arrangement of Esther. And other letters were sent, not only for their salvation, but that they might also defend themselves against their adversaries; for they slew 500 men, and others still. The ten sons of Haman were also hanged. Concerning this, Scripture says: “And the thirteenth and fourteenth days of the month of Adar shall be a festive day for their generations.”

^B Tobit was led into captivity during the reign of Enemessar, king of the Assyrians. “I, Tobit, walked in the ways of truth and righteousness all the days of my life. And when I was led captive with Sarah and Tobias to Nineveh, all of my kin ate of the bread of the Gentiles, but I did not. And if Sennacherib the king slew any, because he came fleeing from Judea, I buried them by stealth; for he slew many in his wrath. And at night, for fear, I buried many. Hence it happened that I laid down to sleep by the wall of the courtyard with my face uncovered, and I did not know that there were sparrows in the wall. And they voided hot dung into my eyes, and white spots formed in them. My wife brought me a kid which she had received as the wage of her labor. But I, thinking it was stolen property, would not eat it, and I was reproached by her as if I profited nothing from virtue. And I wept unto the Lord: ‘It is more profitable for me to die than to live, for I have heard false reproaches.’”

^C At that time, Sarah the daughter of Raguel was also reproached as if she had throttled the seven husbands she had taken; but Asmodeus, the wicked demon, slew them before they could be with her, so that she even wished to hang herself because of it. But God overlooked the reproach of neither Tobit nor Sarah. For when Tobias was sent to retrieve the paternal silver that had been left in trust, Raphael, the angel of the Lord, accompanied him. And upon the road, a fish appearing by the river, the lad was terrified. But the angel permitted him to take it and eat it, and to keep the heart and the liver—the liver for the fumigation of Asmodeus, and the heart for the anointing of his father’s eyes. He led him to the house of Raguel, where he took Sarah as his wife, and cast out Asmodeus who loved her. ^D By this same means, when the eyes of Tobit were anointed, a miracle occurred. After these things, the holy angel said unto them: “Almsgiving is…

delivers from death, and it shall purge away all sin. And now, when you and Sarah, your bride, prayed, I brought the memorial of your prayer before the holy God. And when you buried the dead, I was with you. And when you did not delay to rise and leave your breakfast, that you might go and cover the dead person, you did not escape my notice in acting well, but I was with you. And now God has sent me to heal you and your bride, Sarah. I am Raphael, one of the seven angels, who bring up the prayers of the saints.” And having given this counsel, he ascended to Him who had sent him. Indeed, you have already learned this name of Raphael from the account of Tobit; but the name Uriel, as the truly wise Psellus has written, is known to us in neither the books of the Old nor the New Testament. There is, however, a certain Hebrew book unknown to the many, inscribed *The Prayer of Joseph*, where Joseph’s father, Jacob, is introduced as speaking with this angel Raphael, even if it is currently rejected and discounted by the Hebrews, just as are the other apocrypha. Now, Tobit lived to be one hundred and fifty years old, and Tobias one hundred and twenty-seven. After burying his parents, he went to his father-in-law, Raguel, and before he died, he heard of the destruction of Nineveh, which Nebuchadnezzar captured, according to the prophecy of Tobit. ^B

To return to Samson: after his death, until the priest Eli, there was an,ararchy among them for forty years, and they were destroyed by rising against one another. As for the evil of overlooking those under one’s authority who sin and failing to restrain them sharply, the events concerning Eli, the Ark, and the people demonstrated this. For at that time, Eli fell into a pitiful death, the Ark was captured, and the people were slain by the sword. For the Philistines rushed against the Jews, they joined battle, and about four thousand Hebrews fell. Then, taking up the Ark, they rushed against their enemies, having trusted that they would be victorious as usual. They joined battle, and not a few of the Hebrews fell, and the Ark itself was captured. Therefore, news that was not good reached Eli; he bore the destruction of his sons bravely, even though faults accompanied them—fornication and gluttony (for they would violate the marriages of others, and they would eat the meat before it had been sanctified); ^C but not being able to bear the capture of the Ark, he fell from his seat and died; for he happened at that time to be sitting on a chair by the gates of the sanctuary, having lived ninety-eight years. ^D

^A The Philistines, having taken the Ark, led it captive to the city of Azotus. Then Dagon also was shattered, having fallen from his own base and lying as if in the posture of one worshipping. For God showed there that the Ark was not captured as if He were weak (for if this were the case, their god Dagon would not have been shattered in its presence, so that, if divine grace were not present in it, [yet because it was]) it was captured [in fact] due to the wickedness of the Jews. At that very time, those who had captured it were dying from dysentery, casting out their entrails, which were corrupted. Moreover, a great multitude of mice arose and harmed the produce of the land. The Azotians, therefore, barely understood that such things were happening to them on account of the Ark; hence they request the Ascalonites to accept it to themselves. And having received it, they meet with similar evils. The Ascalonites send it to others, and they in turn to others; and all suffer the same things. The chieftains of those five cities that had been afflicted by these punishments—namely, Accaron, Gaza, Azotus, and the rest—come together and deliberate about this matter. Wherefore they yoke two cows that have recently calved, place the Ark upon them, and leaving them at a crossroads, they grant them power to go along whichever road they wish. If they should depart into the lands of the Hebrews, they say one must consider the Ark to be the cause of such evils; but if they should turn another way, let us pursue it, they said, as one that has no such power. These things happen, and they recognized that a divine power was present with the Ark. ^B The Hebrews, therefore, suffering such things, seek a king and receive Saul, even though God did not bear this kind of request gently, on account of which He also said to Samuel: " They have not rejected you, but Me, so that I should not reign over them." Now this Saul was of the tribe of Benjamin, son of Cis, who was both excellent in form and great in stature. He lost his father's donkeys and comes to the prophet Samuel, intending to ask about them. The prophet, taking the holy oil, pours it over the young man's head and, having kissed him, "Know," he says, "you are king; you have been appointed today by God." But he also told him the things that would happen to him on the way, that he would join prophets and, having become inspired, would prophesy together with them. He anoints him while the multitude is also looking on. And in this way the commonwealth of the Hebrews was transformed into a kingdom. He said to them, "You have greatly provoked God by requesting a king." And it is evident from this: for just as one had never seen winter in the height of summer, so you have beheld this happen. And when the prophet had said these things, lightnings and thunders and hail were brought down, as if ^C from that the people said [they had committed] a sin against God. Saul, however, being about to rush against the Philistines, orders the high priest to take the priestly

garment and prophesy to him concerning the outcome of that war. Once the oracle signaled [success], Saul led his forces out against the Philistines; but intoxicated by victory, he bound the Hebrews with a certain imprecation: if anyone, sparing the enemy, took food—and did not persevere in slaughtering the enemies until nightfall brought an end to the killing—that man should be accursed and devoted to destruction. ^A While Saul was saying this, it happened by chance that, as the soldiers entered a certain forest that was full of bees, Saul’s son, not having heard the father’s curse, pressed out a honeycomb and ate it. And when he later understood what had been done, he said that his father had not done right to impose such a curse; for it is settled that a man attacks an adversary most courageously once he has found food and refreshed himself a little. Saul, having attained victory ^B and offered sacrifices to God, orders the high priest to learn again whether God would grant them to reach the enemy camp and destroy them. The high priest responding that the divine oracle was silent, Saul said: "This does not happen without a certain cause, but there is some hidden sin of ours that is the reason for God’s silence. And I take an oath, even if my own son Jonathan were the one who committed this sin, I would certainly kill him and thus appease God." In this way it happened that the lot fell upon Jonathan; and when his father asked him what crime he had committed and how he had sinned against God, he answered that he was conscious of nothing other than having tasted honey the day before, being ignorant of the curse with which his father had bound ^C the people. Upon hearing this, Saul swears that he will kill him; and since the son did not resist at all and was about to submit to the oath, the people, feeling pity, rescued Jonathan from the hand of Saul and appeased God with supplications. And let these things be recounted in this manner.

He said that Samuel spoke of God saying that, since the Amalekites had treated the Hebrews very evilly in the wilderness, when they were marching out of Egypt, He commanded Saul to punish them with war and to spare none of them. Saul therefore conquered them by main force, but took their king Agag captive, whose beauty and size of body, as Josephus says, he admired and judged worthy of salvation. And he offered sacrifices to God from those spoils. Because of this, God said to Samuel: "It repenteth me that I have appointed Saul king; therefore I have rendered him unworthy to rule over Israel." ^D Hence also Samuel spoke thus to Saul when he had spared Agag, the king of the Amalekites: "Thou hast acted foolishly, because thou didst not keep the commandment which the Lord commanded thee. Therefore the kingdom shall not abide with thee, and the Lord shall seek a man after His own heart to be ruler over His people." In addition to these things, he also said to him, when [1 Reg. xiv, 24. 1 Reg. xv, 11.]

he offered his sacrifice: "The Lord has no delight in burnt offerings, but rather in heeding His voice." And again: "The Lord has torn the kingdom of Israel from thy hand this day, and will give it to thy neighbor who is better than thou" (I Kings XV, 22, 28). Hence, as the prophet ^A was much concerned about Saul, God said to him, "And taking the holy oil, go to Bethlehem to Jesse, and anoint one of his sons as king" (I Kings XVI, 1). He comes, therefore, and since all the other sons of Jesse were rejected (for the holy oil did not flow for them), David, the youngest of all, is anointed. For this reason, the Holy Spirit was henceforth in him, while an evil spirit came upon Saul. As he was being choked, the physicians said, as Josephus states, that such a malady would not be abated unless someone were found who knew how to sing with a harp. ^B Therefore, when search was made for whether such a person existed, David was brought. He therefore makes him his shield-bearer and treats him with honor. And thus Josephus. But as for that evil spirit that choked Saul, the harp of David quieted it, provided it were moved by the all-holy Spirit; for he sang to that, and the other, even though unwillingly, was calmed by it.

After these things, the Philistines go on an expedition against the Judeans. From their camp comes down a man of enormous size named Goliath (for he was six cubits and a span in height), clad in a breastplate weighing five thousand shekels, with other armor in proportion; he uttered a great cry and demanded to fight in single combat. As everyone was in despair, David was brought in, and after comforting Saul—and with difficulty persuading him (for Saul was not confident, looking at the youth of David)—he rushed against Goliath and killed him with a sling. From then on, since the women were saying that Saul had struck down thousands of Philistines, but David tens of thousands, Saul became afraid for his own kingdom; for which reason he henceforth held David in suspicion and harbored no small envy. ^C Whence he also sent him on military expeditions so that he might be killed there in the war. But David, having God with him, performed heroically everywhere, so that even the daughter of Saul, being a virgin, fell in love with him. These things become known to Saul. And he, seizing the opportunity for treachery against him, as Josephus relates, said he would give his daughter if he would bring me a thousand heads of the enemy. These things happen, and he takes Melchol as his wife. Saul does not endure this, but envies him even more, as he was also fearing for his own kingdom. ^D He therefore plans to kill him. He charges these things to his son Jonathan and the most faithful of his household. But he reveals the counsel to David and speaks to his father in his behalf. After these things, he pursues David once and twice

and many times. At that time, he approaches the high priest Abiathar; then he also ate the showbread. From there, he flees again to Abimelech; and at that time, he also feigns the symptoms of an epileptic. Upon these things, David, having found Saul once and twice, and being able to kill him easily, did not wish to do this, committing all his affairs to God. And so much for these things. The Philistines, however, again wage war against the Jews, for which reason Achish also summons his allies. Saul also attacks Mount Gilboa, and seeing the massive encampment of the foreigners, he was troubled, and his heart failed him. And he inquired of the Lord through the Ephod, and He did not answer him; for if they were not well-regarded by Him, He would not listen to them. For this reason, he seeks a ventriloquist, even though he had previously managed to expel their kind from his city, as he was formerly pious towards God. They were called ventriloquists because they have a demon dwelling within their belly, which foretells oracles or prophecies about future events. That woman, however, is persuaded with difficulty, and she brings up the soul of Samuel from Hades, just as Josephus narrates. For the wise in divine matters, Theodoret, calls this account impious and unholy; for he is not persuaded that the soul of any dead man, let alone that of such a great prophet, can be brought up from Hades. Others, not wishing to accept that this account is unholy, say that a certain demon who deceives the people reported the things concerning Saul to the ventriloquist. Theodoret, however, accepts neither the first as pious nor the second; for if the one who appeared was a demon, he would not have spoken true words. Therefore, he says that God himself, having fashioned the form of Samuel, willed to deliver the pronouncement; for He indeed said through one of the prophets: "If you approach the false prophet, I, the Lord God, will answer through him." Thus, He blessed the people through Balaam, and through an impious seer, the things that were to come were announced. These things come to pass, and the Philistines attack the Hebrews. Finally, Saul and his sons fall. Saul, however, having received many wounds and being unable to endure, orders one of his men to bring his sword against him, so that he might not be surrendered to the hands of the enemies. But he did not obey. So he falls upon his own sword, and not being able to end his life even so, he persuades a certain Amalekite, who finishes him off. The Philistines, despoiling the enemies, encounter Saul and his sons, and having cut off their heads, they carry them through the whole land, and they crucify their bodies outside the wall, just as Josephus narrates.

^A Thus Saul ended his life, because he had disobeyed God regarding the Amalekites and because he had delivered the race of the priests to destruction; for through Doeg the Syrian he slew about three hundred and fifty priests who were wearing the ephod. Saul held sway over Israel for forty years, standing head and shoulders above all Israel. God, wishing to gratify the Hebrews, had chosen such a man to reign over them; for it was by reason of his prowess in wars, and not for his piety, that they had requested a king. Thus He chooses the greatest of all men, since we admire not the virtue of the soul, but the stature of the body. ^B After the death of Saul, his son Memphiboseth reigned over Israel, and David over Judah; for he had already been anointed by Samuel. Then Richab and Baneas slew Memphiboseth in secret and came to David as if they had done something praiseworthy. But he destroyed them, just as he had earlier destroyed that Amalekite through whom Saul met his end. At that point, David was established as king over all the people. As for the daughter of Saul—if not as Josephus narrates, then in any case he received her as a prize when he struck down Goliath with a sling; for so it had been agreed between them. David, therefore, after being proclaimed king, takes up a position at Jerusalem, and having routed the Jebusites dwelling there, he makes Jerusalem the seat of his own kingdom. ^C David was the first, as Josephus narrates, to drive the Jebusites out from there, and he named the city after himself; for it was called Solyma in the time of Abraham. After this, he sees Bersabee bathing in her house, and from this he falls in love with her. He is joined to her, and arranges for Urias, who was her husband, to fall in death. Not long after, he is convicted by Nathan. Then he flees because of the revolt of Abesalom, having left his ten concubines to guard his house. The cause of Abesalom’s becoming a parricide was this: David had a daughter of great beauty, who had the same mother as Abesalom. Amnon, the eldest of the sons of Memphiboseth, ^D fell in love with her, and not being able to satisfy his desire, he wasted away with it. Because of this, he feigns sickness. He begs his father that his sister remain with him for the sake of his care. This comes to pass. He reveals his passion to her, but she did not agree. He forces himself upon her, at which he is seen to be disobedient. Immediately, hatred arises in Amnon against her, for which reason he casts her out. She is distressed in no small way. Richas and Branas, Richas, Richaios and Baneas.

^A revealing these things to Absalom. The opportunity is observed, and he goes out to the shearing of his sheep, taking his brothers with him. A feast is held, and when Amnon is stupefied, his servants kill him. From this point, therefore, Absalom, being terrified, begins to devise schemes against his father. And first of all, Achitophel persuades him to enter into his father's concubines; then he counsels him to rush against David with an army. But not being heard because the counsel of Chousai seemed better (for it happened that Chousai was a friend to David), he resorted to the noose. On this account, Absalom is pursued all the more, and is indeed caught. But O, the soul of David! For, having suffered such things from a parricide, he kept saying: "Spare the lad Absalom." But even when Joab had pierced the heart of Absalom, when he was hanging by his hair from the tree, he mourned beyond measure.

^B However, to David, who was pondering the building of a temple to the Lord, Nathan said: "Whatever is in your heart, go and do, for God is with you." For even he was unaware of the future, just as Samuel did not recognize the son of Jesse who was to be anointed, and as Elisha was unaware of the affliction of the Shunammite. By night, however, the Lord appeared to him and said: "Go and say to my servant David: That you shall not build a house for me, because you poured out much blood upon the earth before me." 1 Par. xvii, 4.

^C This seems to have been said for the benefit of those who commit murders; for he would not have condemned a just murder to the king, he who called the just murder of Phinehas a sacrifice. On which account David also gives to Solomon his son the pattern of the temple and of his houses. Everything he gave to him in writing from the hand of the Lord. But Nathan himself, when he was sent to him by God, said: "You did this well, that it came into your heart about building a house; but not you, he who comes from you shall build it." 1 Reg. xviii, 5.

^D Even if God is long-suffering when sin is dared, yet He punishes at some time. For see that with the Gibeonites the Israelites had agreed not to kill them, yet Saul, along with other foreign nations, killed them also. However, the penalties of such a daring deed He exacted in the time of David, bringing on a pestilence. And if they had not killed the seven children of Saul, the divine wrath would not have ceased. We learn, therefore, from this that the Master knows no difference of race, but God justly defends those who have been wronged, even if they are of another nation. And David himself, having wronged Uriah, who was of another nation (for he was a Hittite), did not remain unpunished. But the child of adultery, who was first born to Bathsheba, who had been debauched by David, was s

^B rotting with worms and teeming with stench, his life miserably ended, his body’s dust deposited on the island of Prote, where he had constructed new cells intended for religious exercises.

Michael, surnamed Parapinakes, reigned after him for six years, a man entirely soft, and, if I may put it so, womanly regarding the administration of the commonweal. He entrusted the power of managing affairs to the prelate of Side, John, ^A by whom all was managed excellently, as he was a man outstanding and industrious in his dealings. But to this good wheat eventually some weeds were mixed in. For a certain eunuch named Nicephorus, also called by the diminutive name Nicephoritzes, who had been accused of countless crimes before this Michael’s reign and ordered into exile, was now recalled by Michael and invested with all power—a man who was a eunuch, yet most skilled in confounding affairs and turning things upside down. ^C Everywhere there were accusations, confiscations of property, and unjust exactions; after which followed public groans and wailing, along with a demonstration of divine wrath. For when the Turks saw that the peace treaties entered into with Diogenes had utterly come to nothing, and that the one they had held in high honor had been so cruelly slain by the Romans, they set out from Persia with great forces and invaded the Roman provinces. Moved by this event, Michael also himself convened an army, to which he gave as commander Isaac Comnenus, who, having set out against the enemy, was taken captive when he engaged in battle with the Turks at Caesarea, and lost all his forces. ^D The emperor, having received the messenger of the unhappy battle, could not but grieve, yet he was not at all improved, as one who was led by the suggestions and authority of Nicephorus like some slave. ^A Isaac having been ransomed for a set price, John Caesar was chosen in his place as commander of the forces. And indeed, it is impossible to set forth in words how great the calamities were that befell the Romans in this incursion of the Turks. For the Caesar himself also came into the power of the enemies, and when he had offered himself, with his head shorn, he betook himself to the palace. ^B And these were those famous deeds of Nicephoritzes, who among his other wickednesses, also with singular solicitude desiring gain, as a man most fertile in devising evils, saw to it that a shortage of grain should arise. For everywhere he prevented merchants from selling grain; meanwhile, he alone, nearby Rhaedestus, having established a *phoundax* and monopolies, so that thence...

After him, Michael Parapinakes held power for 6 years; the man was entirely slack and, so to speak, womanly ^C toward the administration of the commonwealth, for which reason he entrusts the power to John, the Metropolitan of Side. And all things were well managed by him, as he was a man good and clever in affairs, but to this good wheat a weed is also mingled. For a certain eunuch, Nicephorus, also called Nicephoritzes, who had been accused of myriad evils before Michael and was hence an exile, is summoned by Michael and is invested with all power; a man indeed a eunuch, but skilled at confounding affairs and turning things upside down. For there were accusations everywhere, confiscations and unjust exactions, ^D

...

^A snatched away by God. For he was destined to be a reproach to the pious king and a proof of his transgression. The Master, therefore, caring for him, did not allow such a one to live. The first book of the Chronicles hints that all the psalms belong to David, as Theodoret says. For he says that David at the beginning ordained that the Lord be praised by the hand of Asaph and his brothers. However, David, having reigned for thirty years, as Theodoret says, met his end at about seventy. One must add to the matters above these things also, which belong to the history of Josephus. David makes an expedition against the Philistines, and having pursued them for a long way, he was separated from all his men. And one of the enemies, who was ^B a descendant of the Giants, seeing him alone and exhausted by labor, hastened to kill him. And this would have happened, had not Abishai, the brother of Joab, having been found there instantly, killed the enemy and restored David safe to his own. From this the whole people bound him by an oath that he would never again meet them in battle. The Philistines encamp again against the Hebrews, among whom was a man six cubits in height, who had more fingers on each of his feet and hands than is natural; for he was also a descendant of the Giants. Jonathan the Sudean killed this man in single combat, and thus became the cause of victory for his side. From that time forth, the Philistines ceased to make war against the Hebrews. Upon which, receiving respite, David began to praise God and compose sacred odes. One must know that David gained many soldiers, invincible in strength, but five were exceptional. For one of them ^C killed six hundred in a single day, and another, having leapt against the enemies, did not stop until he killed nine hundred. For they were so bold that three of them went to Bethlehem and brought water to David, who was within Jerusalem, entering and exiting through the midst of the Philistines, who were encamped outside, and did not dare to oppose them because of their great boldness. And David did not want to drink the water, but poured it as a libation to God, and admired the soldiers. After these things, Solomon, having been appointed by David, sat upon the throne of the Lord for the kingdom, that is to say, upon the throne given to him by the Lord. The end of the first book of the Chronicles shows that Samuel the seer, and Nathan the prophet, and Gad the seer had books written. ^D One must know that Hurnias and Adonias were the same, a son of David; for he had two names. This man, having invited Joab and Abiathar to a banquet, was plotting about the kingdom. But the prophet Nathan makes known the things concerning

^A these to Bathsheba (for she knew the purpose and counsel of God), and she reports the matter to David. David, who did not wish to punish Joab himself, as he had labored much for his sake, advised Solomon his son to kill him, so that he might not despise his youth. He gives him the same counsel concerning Semei, a downright seditious man; whom he himself had nonetheless tolerated, even though he had been insulted by him many times and in many ways. Solomon prevails, and at that time kills his brother Adonias. But he does the same concerning Joab, even though he had fled to the altar of God. For divine law orders that a murderer who has fled to the temple be slain.

^B Solomon, having sacrificed a thousand offerings, supplicated God, and asked to obtain wisdom and understanding. The Lord appeared to him in a dream and said, “Ask what you shall ask for yourself.” He replied, “You have made your servant king in place of David my father, and I am a small child, and I do not know my going in and my going out, and you shall give to your servant a heart to listen to and discern your people in righteousness.” And the Lord said to him, “Because you have asked this word from me, and have not asked for many days, nor wealth, nor the souls of your enemies, but have asked for yourself understanding to listen to justice, behold I have done according to your word. Behold, I have given you a prudent and wise heart, such that there has not been anyone before you, and after you there shall not arise one like you among kings. And if you walk in my way, as David your father, I will multiply your days.” After these things he builds a temple to God, and asks that His eyes be kept open upon the divine house and that He might listen to them. And the Lord appeared to Solomon a second time, just as He appeared in Gabaon, and said, “I have heard the voice of your prayer, and I have sanctified this temple; and my eyes and my heart shall be there all the days. But if you turn away from me, I will root out Israel from this land, and this house which I have sanctified to my name, I will cast away from my presence.” When Solomon had prayed, fire came down from heaven and consumed the offered sacrifices. Observe, therefore, how great was the piety of Solomon before, as even fire was brought down upon ^C his sacrifices. And he builds the temple with unhewn stones (for they were found self-formed by divine providence, so that they needed no harmony of iron, as Theodoret says), but he built the temple's enclosure with cut stones, and there he also needed quarrymen. The length of the temple was sixty cubits, and the breadth twenty. Around the temple, chambers were built for the sake of the Levites and the storage of the vessels; for only the holy places were accessible to the priests. The height of the temple was one hundred and twenty cubits. Gold covered the entire temple. These things, as for all the temple, the grace of the Holy Spirit pointed out to David, and he himself to Solomon. He builds

^A that divine house three hundred and twenty years after the Exodus. And so many years passed, so that, having been purified by their wandering in the mountains, they might love the one place, Jerusalem.

These things concern the ancient temple, which is divided into three parts: into the station of the laity, that of the priests and the Levites (which was called the Holy Place), and into the inner sanctuary itself, which was called the Holy of Holies, into which no one entered except the high priest alone, and he but once a year, and that not without blood. And you will find these things in the heavens as well. For in the heaven nearest to us, clearly the air, are all the promiscuous animals; deeper within the visible firmament, as the Sinaite theologian Anastasius says, the celestial powers reside, and perhaps even the souls of the saints themselves. Higher than the second and invisible heaven, no one has entered except the true High Priest, Christ, the antitype of the true things. ^B That the things of this earthly temple have been built according to the image of the heavenly is something that the great Paul himself declared, saying thus: “For Christ has not entered into the handmade holy places, but into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God for us.” Behold, then, with understanding, that even the visible beauties of this temple are representational images of that invisible beauty, and that the sensory fragrances are models of that intelligible diffusion. And the material lights are images of that other illumination; for through these material things we are led by the hand toward that ineffable contemplation, just as it seems to the great Dionysius.

But that Solomon surpassed all in all things, let Scripture teach you, saying: “And Solomon was magnified above all the kings of Egypt in wealth and wisdom, ^C and all the kings of the earth sought the face of Solomon to hear his wisdom. For his wisdom was increased above every wise man of Egypt.” Regarding the books of Solomon, from which even the students of medicine took their starting points: after receiving wisdom from God, he spoke three thousand parables and five thousand odes concerning all the ^D plants on the earth and all the animals.

^A The Sabaeans are an Ethiopian nation. Their queen was that admirable Sybil who, since she neither knew the Law nor had heard the prophets, praised the Giver of wisdom through Solomon: “Blessed be,” she said, “the Lord thy God, who was pleased to set thee upon the throne of Israel.” Among the tests by which she tried Solomon, she devised this as well: she adorned several beautiful boys and girls with the same clothing and the same haircut, and presented them to him, asking him to distinguish between the two sexes. He ordered them to wash their faces, and thus discerned the nature of each, as the males washed their faces in a manly way, while the females did so gently. She was struck with wonder and said, “I have seen more than I heard.” She gave him 120 talents of gold, and spices, and precious stones, and even the root of the opobalsam, from which source, as Josephus says, Palestine subsequently possessed this plant, and then she returned. A talent contains 125 pounds, from which it can be gathered that he received from the queen 15,000 of our gold centenarii.

Not only these things, but so long as he was pious, he held all the nations from the Euphrates to the Nile as tributaries. But from that time on ^B he became vulnerable to his enemies. In the beginning, Solomon was an object of wonder as he wrote his Proverbs and erected the temple—as the great Cyril says—at the very time that Homer was singing the tragedies of the Trojan disasters, 160 years after the fall of Ilium. But later he fell into impiety. This is clear from what the divine Scripture details about him, saying: “And strange women turned the heart of Solomon after other gods.” Nor less clearly do we learn, from that which the prophet Ahijah said to his servant Jeroboam, that Solomon worshiped idols. He spoke thus: “Thus saith the Lord: Behold, I will rend the kingdom out of the hand of Solomon, and I will give thee ten sceptres, and I will give two sceptres to him for David my servant’s sake and for Jerusalem my city, for he hath forsaken me and hath served Astarte the abomination of the Sidonians, and Chamos the idol of Moab, and Melchom the offence of the children of Ammon.” ^C Some say that Astarte is Lucifer himself, that is to say, the same goddess as Venus. Scripture calls idols abominations and offences. And it appears that God also speaks thus to Solomon himself: “Because these things have happened with thee, and thou hast not kept my commandment and my statutes, which I commanded thee, I will rend and tear thy kingdom out of thy hand, and I will give it to thy servant.” ^D

753 EPISTOLA VI. To the same John Aspiotes. Further, this also is questioned, whether human bodies will rise again as male and female.

Whatever you have doubted, most holy man, asking how human bodies will rise from the dead, and in what form, and whether there is a distinction between male and female; a not small perplexity and lack of counsel has held us for a long time now, for which we do not possess the strength to respond to you easily. For even if great Athanasius himself, the divine Anastasius of Sinai, the divine Gregory of Nyssa, and others of the saints might seem to resolve the matter which is proposed by you today, yet we are nonetheless sluggish regarding investigating such things and contending over such topics. For what reason? Because these things are doubted by almost everyone, as they are considered to be carried outside of ecclesiastical tradition. But since you compel us meanwhile to set before you the sayings of the aforementioned saints, so that from them you may learn what is their force and how one must receive them, and what is gathered for us from them, behold, you have us obeying in this, even though we are unwilling. And if you wish, before others, pay heed to the most divine Athanasius himself. For in the 754 Chapters against Antiochus he is found saying: “Just as God made one human from the beginning, so in the regeneration we all rise as one human,” that is to say, every image of a human being will then be similar to the image and fashion and stature and shape of Adam. Therefore in the resurrection there is no male and female, and small and great, nor a distinction of faces and figures. ^B Regarding those things about which, most holy man, you doubted, asking how human bodies shall rise from the dead, and with what figure, and whether the distinction of male and female will exist in them, it is a long time that not a small hesitation and poverty of counsel have been tormenting us, since those powers are not available to us so that we might be able to answer you easily concerning these matters. For if even great Athanasius himself, and divine Anastasius the Sinaite, and divine Gregory of Nyssa, and the rest of the saints were to appear to resolve the controversy which is today proposed by you, yet they would be loath to scrutinize such things or to clash over such topics. Why? Because they are doubted by almost all, as they are deemed to wander outside of ecclesiastical tradition. But since you force us to bring into the midst for you the sayings of the praised saints meanwhile, so that you may know what is their power and how they ought to be understood, and what we might collect from them, behold, we, though unwilling, are satisfying your wish in this. And, if you wish, lend your ear first to divine Athanasius himself; for in the ^C Chapters to Antiochus he is found saying this: “Just as God made only one human being from the beginning, so in the regeneration we shall all rise as one human”; that is, every image of a human being will then be similar to the image, and formation, and magnitude, and figure of Adam. Therefore male and female, small and great, black and yellow, do not exist in the resurrection, nor the distinction of faces and figures.

ANNAL QUARTER II

The Holy Scripture, looking to the disposition of those who were drinking, called the honey "water" ^A in a certain solitude, when, water having been found, they thought they were being sated with honey. Hence it comes that the Holy Letters, out of consideration for the affection of those who were drawing water, deemed it worthy of the very name of honey.

"After these things Joas held power, who did what was right in the eyes of God all the days of Iodas the high priest. Having lived for one hundred and thirty years, and having died, he was deemed worthy of a royal tomb. But after he died, Joas turned aside to impiety." For which cause prophets were sent to him, Joas himself, among whom was also Zacharias, the son of Iodas, whom they stoned inside the open court in the temple. And as he was dying he said, "Look, Lord, and judge." And he did not fail in his entreaty; for having fallen ill, he was slaughtered by his subjects.

His son, Amasias, having reigned and having conquered the Idumaeans by divine aid and having enslaved ^B their gods, later—the foolish man—honored them, attributing the victory to them. To whom the prophet said, "I know that the Lord has counseled to destroy you," for he ended in the same way as his father.

Thus, having obtained the empire, Joas conducted himself righteously toward God as long as the high priest Iodas was alive; who, when he had attained to one hundred and thirty years of age and had fulfilled his destiny, attained such honor that he was interred in the royal sepulcher. But when he had been removed from human affairs, King Joas then turned aside to impiety. For this reason, not a few prophets were sent to him, among whom was Zacharias, the son of the high priest Iodas, whom King Joas overwhelmed with stones in the part of the temple situated in the open air. As he was dying, he used words of this manner: "Look upon these things, Lord, and punish ^C." Nor was his petition in vain; for the king, when he had fallen into sickness, was killed by his subjects.

His son Amasias, when he had seized the kingdom and had reported a victory over the Idumaeans by divine aid and had overthrown their gods, the foolish man eventually honored those religiously consecrated ones and attributed the victory gained to them themselves. On account of which a certain prophet denounced him, saying that God had resolved to take Amasias from the midst. Nor long after, he was extinguished by a similar manner of death as his father.

"The Holy Scripture praises Ozias: 'For he was,' it says, 'inquiring after the Lord, in the fear of the Lord, in the days of Zacharias.' But after these things, having desired to enter into the inner sanctum and to burn incense, and having been rebuked by the high priest and the eighty priests—for they said to him, 'It is not ^D allowed for you, Ozias, to burn incense, but for the priests, the sons of Aaron'—he, [said], 'Am I not king, and have I not been clothed with the royal purple?' He was therefore struck with leprosy because of this. And while he sat inside because of the leprosy, his son Joatham was conducting the kingdom."

And another was Zacharias, the son of Iodas, whom Joas stoned, and another was he in the time of Ozias. "I think this is the one," says Theodoret, "about whom the Lord spoke to Isaiah, 'Make for me as faithful witnesses men, Urias the priest and Zacharias the son of Barachias.'"

Achaz, the son of Joatham, surpassed all in impiety, for which cause he found many evils. And not even so did he understand, but, "I will seek," he said, "the gods of the nations who smite me, and I will sacrifice to them, and they will assist me." And he even led his own sons through fire. But what is this? As Josephus reports, he burned one of his own sons as a whole burnt offering to Baal. "I think," says Theodoret, "that the species of error which reached even unto us is hinted at from this. For once of the year we see fires being lit, and certain boys and men jumping over these, but even infants being carried through the flame by their mothers. This seemed to be a certain averruncation and purification." I think this was the accusation brought against Achaz, whom those who died did not deem worthy of royal honor.

He subsequently succeeded to the empire upon the death of his father, who had reigned for 33 years; and, having held power for a long time, he ended his life, leaving his son John, aged six, as his heir.

Michael Palaiologos, however, who even while Theodore was alive had long been inciting innovations, transferred the sum of power to himself and blinded John. The same man recovered Constantinople, over which the fourth emperor from Flanders, Baldwin II, brother of the now-deceased Robert, then presided. Thus, a certain form of empire was re-established through Michael, with the Latins entirely expelled from the jurisdiction of the Greeks, except for meager remnants still clinging to the Peloponnese. And since it seemed neither safe nor conducive to peace for Michael to have a crowd of workmen and merchants, consisting of Venetians and Pisans, who remained after the expulsion of the Latins, living within the city along with the Genoese, their perpetual enemies, he assigned Galata to the Genoese, situated across the water, granting freedom from duties on goods, which he had promised them even before he possessed the city, if he were helped by them in recovering it. Magistrates from their homeland were sent to these people at fixed times, to dispense justice and preside over their own. And the Venetians, indeed, called their own a Bailiff or curator, the Pisans a consul, and the Genoese a Podestà.

Baldwin of Flanders, liberated from danger at Constantinople and having escaped, once he had arrived in Italy, formed an alliance with the Neapolitan King Charles—the brother of the King of the French, who had slaughtered Conradin of Swabia, the legitimate heir to that kingdom—betrothing the king’s daughter to his own son, hoping that with his resources he would recover Constantinople. But this desire and effort was altogether in vain. During the reign of Palaiologos, on the 25th day of May, in the year 6775, around the third hour before noon, the moon obscured the sun, and there was a total eclipse of almost 12 points. So great, moreover, was the darkness that arose in its midst that many stars appeared; which, indeed, portended the greatest calamities of the Romans, impending from the Turks.

Following these things, the emperor betrothed his son Andronikos to Anna of Pannonia, and at the same time adorned him with the emblems of the empire, having promised under oath that he would piously venerate the Church, keep its privileges inviolate, and never plot against his father.

However, when King Charles of Naples was making great preparations in favor of Baldwin of Flanders, Palaiologos stirred up domestic wars against him, inciting the surrounding peoples, the Sicilian king and the Venetians, to make war upon him. Furthermore, he sent legates to the Pope concerning the establishment of concord between the churches of old and new Rome, provided that he would turn aside the expedition of Charles. And the legation having been kindly heard by the Pope, the terms of concord were begun, the heads of which were as follows: First, that in the hymns of the sacred volumes, the Pope should be mentioned along with the four patriarchs. Second, that it should be permitted to anyone to appeal to old Rome, as it was a greater and more perfect curia.

Gradually, however, they felt more mildly, after the books of Nikephoros Blemmydes—who, having been consulted during the reign of Emperor John Doukas concerning these same controversies against the Latins, had written much—were exhibited to John Bekkos the Chartophylax. In this way it came about that Bekkos, who had long and most bitterly opposed the Latins, changed his opinion, rendered the victory ambiguous, and, having ascended the patriarchal throne, he was admitted to the intimate friendship of the emperor.

Upon the death of Michael, his son Andronikos succeeded to the empire; during his reign, the Turkish princes, Carmanus Alisurius, Sarchanes, Calames, Cerasus, Atman (who is also Oomanus), and the sons of Amurius, divided among themselves the Asiatic provinces taken from the Greeks. Against these, the Catalans were summoned from Spain by the leader Ronzerius, with great promises of rewards, if they would turn the Turks away from the borders of the Greeks. But when, after the matter against the Turks had been conducted successfully, their stipends were not paid to them as had been agreed, they turned their arms against the Greeks themselves, ravaged Asia, and crossed over into Europe again. And when Callipolis was occupied, and Ronzerius—whom the emperor had previously honored with the title of Caesar—was sent to Adrianople, where Michael, the son of Andronikos, the designated emperor, was staying at that time, to demand their stipends, Ronzerius was killed by the Greeks at the royal command. Upon the news of his murder, the Catalans prepared themselves for war, ravaged the property of the Greeks, and roamed through Thrace, striking down Michael in open battle at Aper (this is the name of a town in Thrace); trusting in their victory, they invaded Macedonia and, having crossed the mountains and valleys which are called Tempe, they burst into Thessaly. And when the Thessalians decided that the Catalans should not be provoked at all, they obtained, by giving money and guides for their journey, that they would depart from their borders.

Therefore, having been brought into Boeotia, they sought peaceful passage through his lands from the Duke of Athens and Thebes. He, having scorned the Catalans and their demands with pride and mockery, gathered his forces through the autumn and winter until the spring. Thus, the Catalans at the beginning of spring, having pitched camp not far from the river Cephissus, awaited the enemy. Their cavalry numbered 3,500, and there were 4,000 infantry. While they awaited the arrival of the enemy, they plowed all that land where they had decided to fight; then, having erected a rampart and dug trenches to the river, they irrigated the entire plain so that it became a marsh. In the middle of spring, the prince of the region arrived with great forces, leading 6,400 cavalry and more than 8,000 infantry. And his opinion and arrogance were far greater. For he hoped that, once the Catalans were defeated, he would bring everything under his own power as far as Byzantium. And when he saw the plain lying between his own men and the enemy, green with much grass, suspecting nothing of what had been done, he charged against them with his cavalry, while they were standing in battle array outside the field. But before the Atticans arrived at the middle of the plain

357 ANNALIUM PARS II. 358 cum ossibus divini hominis, e Judæa profecti, et omnia prolocuti quæ Josias deinceps exsecutus est, sepulta fuisse. Itidem divinum hunc hominem ^A Ἰωσίας, ὁ ὡσαύτως καὶ τὸν ἄνθρωπον τοῦ Θεοῦ ὁ μὲν Ἰώσηπος Ἰαδὼν αὐτὸν ὀνομάζει, ἡ δὲ βίβλος τῶν Παραλειπομένων Ἰωὴλ αὐτὸν ἡμᾶς καλεῖσθαι ἐδίδαξεν. Josephus quidem Jadonem appellat, Omissorum vero liber docet ei nomen Joeli fuisse. ^A Ἐπαινεῖ ἡ Γραφὴ καὶ τοῦ ᾿Ασᾶ τὴν προτέραν εὐσέβειαν· Ἐποίησε γάρ φησιν, ὁ ᾿Ασᾶ τὸ εὐθὺ ἐνώπιον Κυρίου τοῦ Θεοῦ αὐτοῦ (3 Reg. xv, 11). Ὅθεν καὶ τοὺς ἐμόρους πάντας ὑπέταξεν. Ἀλλὰ καὶ ἑορτὴν ἐπινίκιον ἐκτελέσας ὀμόσαι παρεσκεύασεν ἅπαντας ὡς τῆς ἐννόμου πολιτείας οὐκ ἀποστήσονται. ᾿Αλλὰ καὶ τὴν μητέρα αὐτοῦ τῇ Ἀστάρτῃ λατρεῦσαι προελομένην τῆς βασιλείας ἐγύμνωσεν. Οὐκ ἐν πᾶσι δὲ τέλειος ἦν· οὐδὲ γὰρ ἐξῆρε τὰ ὑψηλά. Καὶ τοῦ Βασὰ δὲ στρατεύσαντος κατ' αὐτοῦ, οὐ τὸν Θεὸν εἰς συμμαχίαν ἐκάλεσεν, ἀλλὰ τὸν βασιλέα Συρίας. Ἐφ' ᾧ καὶ δι' ᾿Ανανῆ τοῦ προφήτου τὴν ἀπιστίαν διήλεγξεν ὁ Θεός εἰπών, «Ἐν τῷ πεποιθέναι σε βασιλεῖ Συρίας, καὶ μὴ ἐπὶ Κύριον τὸν Θεόν σου, ἧται ὁ Βασᾶν κατὰ σοῦ, διὰ τοῦτο ἐσώθη ἡ δύναμις βασιλείας Ἰσραήλ» (2 Paral. xvi, 6). Ὁ δὲ Ἀσᾶ μὴ θρηνήσας ἐπὶ τούτοις, ὡς δέον ἦν, τὸν προφήτην ἐφυλάκισε, καὶ νοσήσας ὕστερον οὐ τὸν Κύριον ἐζήτησεν, ἀλλὰ τοὺς ἰατρούς, ἴσως δὲ τοὺς φαρμακούς.

Secundum hæc prædicant Litteræ sacræ regis Asæ pietatem, quam ab initio declaraverit, Recte, inquiunt, se gessit Asa erga Dominum Deum suum. Quo factum ut finitimos omnes imperio suo subjiceret. Quin etiam triumphali festo instituto cunctos sacramento devinxit se a præscripta in lege disciplina vivendique ratione non discessuros. Præterea matrem suam quæ Astarte cultum probaret, regno abdicavit. Non tamen in omnibus perfectum sese gessit. Nec enim sacella editorum sustulit, ac deinceps Basa Israelicorum rege cum exercitu adversus ipsum profecto auxilium opemque Dei non imploravit, sed Syriæ regem arcessivit. Idcirco per Ananem vatem Deus ipsius diffidentiam hujusmodi verbis objurgavit: Quoniam Syriæ regi, non Domino Deo tuo innixus es, propterea manus tuas Israelici regis exercitus evasit. Tum Asa, nequaquam deplorato delicto suo, quemadmodum facere debuerat, etiam fatidicum in carcerem conjecit. Deinde morbo correptus non ad opem Domini confugit, sed ad medicos; quorum appellatione fortassis venefici et excantores veniunt.

^B Ἐπαινεῖ δὲ καὶ τὸν Ἰωσαφὰτ ὡς τὴν ἀρετὴν ἐζηλωκότα κατ' ἀρχὰς τοῦ Δαβίδ. Τὸ γὰρ, «Ὕψωθη αὐτοῦ ἡ καρδία», οὐ κατηγορία, ἀλλ᾽ ἔπαινος· ἐπήγαγε γὰρ, «ἐν ὁδοῖς Κυρίου». Ἐπιμέμφεται δὲ αὐτῷ τὴν γαμικὴν ἐπιμιξίαν ἣν πρὸς τὸν ᾿Αχαάβ ἐποιήσατο· Γοθολίαν γὰρ τοῦ ᾿Αχαὰβ τὴν θυγατέρα κατεγγύησε τῷ παιδὶ αὐτοῦ. Ὅπερ δὲ ἀφῆκεν ἡ τῶν βασιλειῶν ἱστορία, ἐνταῦθα ῥηθήσεται. Ἐπανιόντι γὰρ αὐτῷ ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ ᾿Αχαὰβ παρατάξεως τῷ Ἰωσαφὰτ ἀπήντησεν Ἰηοῦ προφήτης ὁ τοῦ ᾿Ανανῆ, καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ. «Βασιλεῦ Ἰωσαφάτ, εἰ ἁμαρτωλῷ σὺ βοηθεῖς; εἰ μισουμένῳ ὑπὸ Κυρίου σὺ φιλιάζῃ; διὰ τοῦτο ἐγένετο ἐπὶ σὲ ὀργὴ παρὰ Κυρίου. Ἀλλ' οἱ ὀλίγοι ἀγαθοὶ εὑρέθησαν ἐν σοὶ, ὅτι ἐξῆρας τὰ ἄλση ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς Ἰούδα». Ἐντεῦθεν οὖν μανθάνομεν ὡς ἐλαττοῖ τὰς ἐπὶ τοῖς ἁμαρτήμασι τιμωρίας τὰ πρῶτα κατορθώματα. Ὁ τοίνυν Ἰωσαφὰτ δεξάμενος τὸν ἔλεγχον διωρθώσατο ἐπὶ πᾶσι, καὶ κριτὰς τῇ πόλει ἐπέστησεν, ἵνα δικαίως πάντα πράττοιντο. Ἀλλὰ καὶ πολεμίων ἐπιστάντων πρὸς Θεὸν κατέφυγεν, ὃς καὶ παρεθάρρυνεν αὐτὸν διὰ τοῦ Ἰεζεκιήλ λέγων· «Μὴ φοβηθῆτε τὸ πολὺ πλῆθος, ἀλλ' αὔριον ἐξέλθετε». Πρώτους δὲ τοὺς Λευΐτας ὁ βασιλεὺς ἐξήγαγεν· ὅθεν καὶ οἱ πολέμιοι ἀλλήλους κατέκοψαν. Ὅρα δὲ καὶ ἑτέραν βίβλον προφητικήν· λέγει γὰρ ἡ ἱστορία· «Καὶ οἱ πολλοὶ λόγοι Ἰωσαφὰτ οἱ πρῶτοι καὶ οἱ ἔσχατοι οὐκ ἰδοὺ γεγραμμένοι εἰσὶν ἐν λόγοις Ἰηοῦ υἱοῦ ᾿Ανανή».

Laudant et Litteræ sacræ Josaphatum, ut qui virtutem exemplo Davidis, unius ex majoribus suis, unice dilexerit. Nam quod in eis perscriptum legimus: «Elatum est cor ejus», id vero non ad vituperationem spectat, sed ad laudem atque commendationem: subjiciuntur enim hujusmodi quædam verba, «In præscriptis et institutis a Domino». Unum in eo reprehenditur, conjugalis videlicet vinculi et affinitatis conjunctio cum Achaabo instituta. Quippe Gotholiam Achaabi filiam suo filio conjugem dedit. Atque hoc loco recitandum est, quod scripta de regibus historia memoriæ non prodidit. Cum ex acie Josaphatus reverteretur, qua suppetias Achaabo tulerat, Iehu vates Ananis filius occurrit, ac regem in hunc modum compellavit: «Tene, Josaphate rex, homini scelerato ferre auxilium? Tene cum exosis Domino amicitiam colere? Ergo istius rei Domino irato pœnas dares: sed exstiterunt in te laudabilia quædam, quod lucos scilicet e solo ditioneque Judaica exterminaveris». Quibus ex verbis discere licet præclara hominum facta, quæ prius sint præstita, delictorum sequentium pœnas imminuere. Josaphatus quidem certe cum hanc reprehensionem benigne tulisset, cunctis in actionibus se deinceps egregie gessit, ac judices reipublicæ præfecit, eisdem imperans ut omnia de juris et æqui præscripto facerent cumque hostes ipsum invasissent, ad Deum confugit. Is hominis animo robur addidit, hujusmodi verbis per Jezecielum vatem editis: Nolite tantam istam multitudinem metuere, sed cras ad illam egredimini.

^A And there was a woman, a lady of the family of the Malatestas, marquises of the 346th, who was truly a woman of excellent beauty and other endowments. It is said that hot vinegar was poured into his eyes—which indeed happened afterwards (though with fruitless effort, for he had recovered his sight at that time)—together with his son John, seeking aid so that he might take possession of the Byzantine Empire. When they had obtained 4,000 horsemen, they marched on Byzantium. ^B John the emperor and his son Manuel, having heard of Andronicus' arrival, entered the fortress which they call the Golden, preparing themselves to endure a siege. But Andronicus received the fortress into surrender through negotiations, and confined both in a very cramped wooden tower: in which they spent three years, while Bajazet warned in vain that they should be killed. In the fourth year, they persuaded the prison warden, who provided food to the captives, to supply them with iron in secret. This being done, they escaped to Bajazet, promising a huge tribute for their reinstatement. After exploring the intentions of the Byzantines, Manuel was given to them as emperor by the authority of Bajazet, who would pay thirty thousand gold pieces annually to the Turk, with Andronicus and his son John deported to the court of Bajazet, where they were to be maintained. ^C With Manuel's help, Bajazet took Philadelphia, a fortified city of Lydia, which was the only one in Asia still under Greek law.

But when Manuel did not fulfill the promises made to Bajazet, and refused to come to the court of the Turk, the siege of Constantinople began, which lasted a whole decade, and the city would have been completely captured, had not Tamberlanes the Scythian, having waged war on the Turks, captured Bajazet himself. While this siege was ongoing, Manuel, having entrusted the city to John, the son of Andronicus, who had defected to him from Bajazet, set out for Italy to the Venetians and the Duke of Milan for the sake of aid. Thence he entered Gaul and found the King of the Gauls, Charles, suffering from insanity, nor could he obtain from any of the Gallic dukes that for which he had come. Wherefore, upon the advice of the nobles who were there, he decided to wait for so long until the king should recover. But when the illness was protracted for a long time, he did not dare to remain any longer, and therefore, having crossed Germany and Pannonia, he returned home.

When Mahomet died—whom the Greeks found to be very kind and friendly—his firstborn son Amurates assumed the Turkish kingdom in the 12th year of his reign. ^D By inaugurating this rule of his, the Greeks hastened their own affairs toward complete ruin. For they summoned from Lemnos Mustapha, who claimed to be the son of Bajazet, although Mahomet, who had died a little earlier (as has been said), had stated that he was a pretender, and had obtained from the Greeks that he be kept closed in prison. But when, on account of the violence of the winds, Mustapha could not be transported from Lemnos into the Hellespont, nor be set up as king in Europe, they intercepted the crossings into Europe in the Propontis and Hellespont with triremes in order to block Amurates. Meanwhile, they sailed to Calliopolis, an opulent city of the Chersonese, so that they might hold a conference there with the arriving Mustapha, and when they had made him king of Europe, they asked him to restore Calliopolis to them, and they easily obtained that. Then indeed the commanders of Amurates, left in Europe by his father Mahomet, sent a certain Bajazet from the number of the nobles to Byzantium to Manuel, to ask that the treaty entered into with Mahomet should not be violated, and at the same time offer twelve of the highest-ranking hostages, two hundred thousand gold pieces, and finally a large region adjacent to Calliopolis, whichever the Greeks asked for, if the Byzantine emperor would abandon Mustapha and not bring aid to either side, but rather let them collide with hostile arms.

After the death of Bajazet, when his son Mahomet had come to power after his brothers and had made a perpetual peace with the Greeks, the emperor Manuel set out to the Peloponnese and surrounded the Isthmus with a wall, so that the whole region might be safe. Manuel had sons: John, Andronicus, Theodore, Constantine, Demetrius, and Thomas. He admitted John the firstborn, who seemed to excel the others, into a partnership of the empire. He gave him as a wife one from Italy, daughter of the prince of Montferrat, endowed indeed with an excellent temperament, but of unliberal appearance; for which reason she was little to his heart, nor did he live with her, nor did he observe the law of marriage. She, however, noticing that she was unloved by her husband, boarded a ship and betook herself to her own relatives. Andronicus, corrupted by elephantiasis, did not live long. Theodore was sent by his father to his uncle Theodore the purple-born, so that, educated by his uncle, he might succeed him in the principality of the Peloponnese. When these things were understood, John, son of Manuel, a youth desirous of power, thought at first that his affairs would be better if those men waged enmity among themselves, and that they would lose their own affairs by mutual discord. Furthermore, he thought it would not be of little benefit to himself if both were in need of his help. And if they were to divide the kingdom between themselves, he decided that each could more easily be suppressed by him, who however was not in reality equal to either. But afterwards, he followed a far different opinion, wholly addicted to Mustapha's party. But Manuel, the father of John, thought differently from his son, establishing that the religion of treaties must not be violated. Nevertheless, the son won, and aid was decreed for Mustapha. Soon Calliopolis was besieged and taken by storm, and when the Greeks asked for it back, Mustapha said that this would be unpleasant for the Turks, as the kingdom had not yet been acquired, and at the same time asked them to wait only a little while. Subsequently, Adrianople was occupied, the seat of the Turkish kingdom in Europe; upon which being done, troops of Turks defected to him everywhere, as if he were the son of Bajazet. Having brought Europe into his power, he crossed into Asia with the Azapides, the foot-soldiers of the Turks, and other European troops, and with Zunaites, the prince of Smyrna, in order to gain control of that as well. At the same time, having sent ambassadors to the Greeks, he begged that they not innovate anything in his absence: he would return Calliopolis once Amurates was defeated. Amurates also sent his own, who would promise the most ample things if they would follow his sides...

Quo facto, rex primos omnium levitas eduxit, nec multo post ipsimet hostes se mutuis vulneribus conciderunt. Licet autem ex indiciis quibusdam colligere, quemdam alium quoque librum de Josaphato scriptum fuisse: nam hujusmodi verba exstant in historiæ monumentis: An non multæ Josaphati orationes et facta tum ineuntis ætatis tirocinii defecta in libris Iei vatis, Ananis filii, perscripta sunt?

Caeterum præclare divinus ille Davides canit: ^A Libera me ab hominum calumnia. Nam de Nabuthæo perscriptum legimus, fuisse qui verbis hujusmodi hominem deferrent: Nabuthæus Deo et regi bene precatus est, hoc est maledixit. Sic enim verbum istud hoc loco debet accipi, quemadmodum et in Jobo legimus: In os profecto bene tibi precabitur. Hoc pacto delatus vitam amisit, Jezabele rem consilio et astu suo procurante. Hinc factum ut magnus ille vates Elias verbis talibus Achaabum compellare non dubitaret: Hæc tibi Dominus denuntiat: Tune hominem occideris et ejus bona possidens? At enim a Domino sic habeto. Quo in loco linxere porci et canes Nabuthæi sanguinem, ibidem canes tuum quoque cruorem lingent, seque scorta tuo sanguine alluent. Quibus ^B verbis Achaabus admodum contristatus non mox pœnas luit propterea quod mærore affectus fuisset. Quin etiam Deus Aderis filium, qui Samariam obsidebat, cum duobus et triginta regibus in potestatem ei dedit; quem ubi vita donatum præter edictum divinum, satellitibus etiam adjunctis, dimisisset, iram Dei adversus se concitavit. Nam is continuo per vatem Michæam (hoc enim ipsius nomen Josephus memoriæ prodidit) quodam a viatore læsum ac vulneratum in capite, verbis hujusmodi allocutus est: Quoniam tu exitialem virum de manu emisisti, tam vita illius tua vita quam populus populo rependetur.

Post hæc tribus elapsis annis, sumpto secum Josaphato Judææ rege, vates suos quadringentos consulit, censerentne sibi cum exercitu pergendum adversus Rema Galaaditidis oppidum, an expeditionem potius omittendam. Respondent Baalis vates omnino pergendum. At cum Josaphatus quæreret ecquis præ- ^C terea Domini vates adesset (ejus enim opera Dominum esse consulendum): Est, inquit Achaabus, adhuc quidam vates cui Michææ nomen. Sed nunquam ille animo meo grata vaticinatur. Nihilominus arcessitur; et primo quidem respondet cundum esse, quod Domino favente regi feliciter res omnes sint successura. Verum deinceps eum obtestante per sacramentum rege, divinam mentem aperit. Tum Achaabo ad Josaphatum dicente: Nonne prædixi vatem hunc mihi nihil boni denuntiare, sed tantum infausta?, subjecit Michæas: Videbam Dominum, Deum Israelitarum, in solio suo considentem, cumque universæ copiæ cœlestes ipsi astarent, hæc fatus est: Quis Achaabum regem Israelicum decipiet, ut cum exercitu Rema Galaaditidis oppidum proficiscatur atque ^D ibi perdat? Et exiit spiritus, et stetit coram Domino, et dixit: Ego decipiam illum. Et dixit Dominus ad eum: In quo? Et ego dixi: Exibo, et ero spiritus mendax in ore omnium prophetarum ejus, et decepi eum. Et dixit: Potes exire, et facito. Hæc autem omnia, ut ait Theodoretus, per prosopopœiam dicta sunt, edocentia nos divinam permissionem. Ita nimirum et ea quæ de Job scripta sunt, in quibus Scriptura ait angelos coram Deo et diabolum in medio eorum adstitisse, et sic f…

But while they persisted in their friendship with Mustapha, claiming to have spoken with him—men who all said they would journey to Rome—and having dismissed the envoys of Amurates with their business unfinished, they returned to the camp and spread the rumor that the Greeks had been won over to Amurates. At the same time, they threatened the soldiers of Mustapha with the worst, as if they were clearly about to perish in Asia, with the return to Europe cut off. As this rumor flew through Mustapha’s camp, and the envoys he himself had sent were not yet present, the spirits of the Turks began to waver, and immediately Zunaites fled to his paternal domain, with the other leaders and troops also slipping away. Upon this, Mustapha fled to the sea to secure his own safety, and betook himself to Europe.

While these things were happening in Asia, the Byzantine Emperor in the Peloponnese was besotted with a certain woman—the daughter of a priest—at a completely inopportune time, meanwhile neglecting the excellent opportunity to exclude Amurates from crossing into Europe. Amurates, having crossed over with his own forces through the help of a certain Genoese shipmaster, pursued Mustapha most fiercely, captured him, and strangled him. Hostile to the Greeks, he besieged Constantinople, though with a futile attempt, for they resisted so bravely that he was compelled to lift the siege. But since he was not willing to grant peace even to the Greeks, they summoned Mustapha—thirteen years of age—the brother of Amurates, and promised to secure the kingdom for him, so that he might create trouble for Amurates. However, he too was led by the Greeks into Asia, and betrayed to Amurates and killed by his tutor, to whom he had been entrusted by his father Mahomet for his upbringing.

Following these events, envoys were sent again to Amurates, especially the illustrious men Notaras and Caroluca, and finally the Greeks obtained peace. While it lasted, the Genoese, provoked by the son of John Manuel, waged war on Constantinople and besieged it; but when they could not capture it, being fortified at Galata (which was a Genoese city across from Byzantium, also having the name Pera), they returned to Italy. Nevertheless, war continued to be waged between the Galatians and the Byzantines until, after many Genoese had been captured by the general John Leontaris, a return to friendship was achieved.

That war finished, the son of John Manuel sent envoys to the Roman pontiff Eugenius, to request that a council be convoked at which the controversies of the Greeks and Latins might be settled. He was testing the spirits of the Westerners in this way, to see if they appeared disposed to return to concord with the Greeks. These envoys set out to the Germans, who, gathered at Basel, were holding a council against Eugenius and, having rejected him, had created Felix, Duke of Savoy, a man of manifest integrity, as supreme pontiff. Therefore, both pontiffs, having equipped triremes, summoned the Byzantine emperor John. For both wished that a council be held under them, and that the religious controversy which existed with the Greeks be finished. When triremes were present from both, the emperor dismissed the embassy of the Basel council with kind words; regarding the Romans, Venetians, and the rest of Italy, he had already decided to travel there, as he had previously arranged.

When he had arrived at Venice, he set out from there for Ferrara, where he had learned that the pontiff Eugenius was residing. When he had come to him, he was wearied by pleas to assist the pontiff in the contention that had arisen with the Germans. From there they set out for Florence, where, when the Greeks had arrived, they dealt much and long with the pontiff so that the affair of the diverse religion might be brought to a happy conclusion. When this had been brought to an end, they sanctioned by writings and sacred protestations that they would henceforth be unanimous in the same religion. This done, the pontiff promoted two most noble men among the Greeks to the order of cardinals and joined them to himself in familiarity: Bessarion, the Trapezuntian of Nicaea, and Isidore, the prelate of Sarmatia or Russia. For he had been greatly helped by their work in entering into concord with the Greeks. Bessarion was endowed with such power of intellect that he did not merely equal the most outstanding of the Greeks, but even surpassed them. In judgment on any matter, he was of great worth. He excelled in such knowledge of Greek and Latin letters that he easily took the palm of erudition among all. Nicholas, who succeeded Eugenius, made much of the man and held him in singular regard. For this reason, he was appointed by him prefect of Bologna, that he might govern it in the pontifical name. However, when that city was agitated by various seditions, Bessarion demonstrated his own divine prudence and virtue in those tumults. It is certain that Isidore, no less wise and a lover of his fatherland, namely Byzantium, was subsequently captured by the Turks when Mahomet the Second stormed the city, for whose salvation Isidore was then fighting bravely. Eugenius returned this man to the number of cardinals, as his authority was held in highest regard among the Greeks, because he thought he would contribute greatly to his own affairs in establishing concord with the Greeks, as indeed happened.

When the Greek emperor sought from the pontiff a garrison to retain Byzantium, the latter replied in such a way that he promised the empire of the Greeks would be his care for the future, and said he would not cease in stirring up the Germans and Hungarians to take up arms against the Turks for the use of the Greeks. These things done, the emperor returns to Byzantium. Returning home, however, the Greeks were no longer willing to abide by those things that we have said were agreed and settled in Italy. Therefore, the Roman pontiff, moved, sent certain learned men to Byzantium to come into conversation with the Greeks; they did not admit the synod convened in Italy nor its decrees. For Marcus, the prelate of Ephesus, and Scholarius, the most learned of the Greeks, were just as unwilling then as before to agree with the Latins. When it came to conversation and disputation, the Romans could accomplish nothing, but returned home with their business unfinished. Moved by this, the pontiff did not send the promised aid to the Greeks; they, themselves estranged from the pontiff,

διαλεχθῆναι πρὸς τὸν Κύριον [to converse with the Lord], the divine Chrysostom says that this is a personification. Josephus, however, says that Baal is the god of the Tyrians, Astarte of the Sidonians, and Baalim the shrine of Baal. And thus much for these matters. ^A Jehoshaphat, although he sought a prophet and learned such things, nevertheless marched off to war with Ahab; yet, on account of his other virtue, as has been said above, he was preserved. Micaiah, however, when thrown into prison by Ahab, said with frankness: "If you return in peace, the Lord has not spoken through me." But the divine prophecy concerning Ahab delivered through Elijah also reached its end. Having been wounded, he stood for a long time in his chariot so that he would not cause a rout by flight. The blood flowing from the wound was congealed in the chariot. The charioteer washed this by a fountain, and the dogs licked it up. The harlots also came at dawn to wash themselves according to custom, for the water was stagnant and stained with blood. ^B Joram, the kinsman of Ahab, having emulated the impiety of his father-in-law, met with a punishment worthy of it. For the great prophet Elijah made known the decree by letter: "Thus says the Lord: 'Because you have not walked in the way of Jehoshaphat your father, but have killed your brothers, behold, the Lord strikes a great blow in your house, and you shall be in evil sicknesses, in sickness of the bowels, until your intestines come out.'" The Philistines therefore turned against him and enslaved everyone, and killed all his children except for Ochozias. The disease also fell upon him, and even after death he was not deemed worthy of a royal burial. Truly it is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God. ^C After him came Ochozias, who himself was an emulator of the impiety of his fathers. Therefore, two captains of fifty were sent to the great Elijah with arrogance, calling him to inquire about the king's sickness; upon which, bringing down fire from above, he consumed them. But here those who accuse the prophet of cruelty are accusing God Himself; for everything is done through Him. A third captain of fifty is therefore sent, and using gentle words, he escaped the punishment. Descending, therefore, and meeting those who had been sent to the idols, he said: "Because there is no God in Israel, do you go to seek Beelzebub, the god of Ekron? The bed on which you have gone up, you shall not come down from." Let them therefore know from this ^D that

^A regarding the thirst of those drinking, the Scripture called the water "honey." Following these things, Joas holds power, who did what was right in the sight of God all the days of the high priest Joiada. Having lived for one hundred and thirty years and died, he was deemed worthy of a royal tomb. But after he died, Joas turned toward impiety. On account of which, prophets were sent to him, the Joas, among whom was also Zacharias, the son of Joiada, whom they stoned inside the open space in the temple. And as he was dying he said, "Look, O Lord, and judge." And he did not fail in his request; for having fallen into an illness, he was slain by his subjects. His son, Amasias, having become king and having conquered the Idumaeans with divine assistance and made slaves of their gods, later the senseless man honored *them* ^B, attributing the victory to them. To whom the prophet said: "I know that the Lord has purposed to destroy you." For he perished similarly to his father. The divine Scripture praises Ozias: "For he was," it says, "seeking the Lord in the fear of the Lord in the days of Zacharias." But after these things, desiring to enter the holy place and to offer incense, and being rebuked by the high priest and the eighty priests—for they said to him, "It is not for you, Ozias, to offer incense, but for the priests, the sons of Aaron"—he said, "Am I not king and clothed in a royal purple robe?" He was therefore rendered leprous on account of this. While he remained inside because of the leprosy, his son Joatham was directing the kingdom. But there was one Zacharias, the son of Joiada, whom Joas stoned, and another who was during the time of Ozias. I think this one is, says Theodoret, he ^C regarding whom the Lord said to Isaiah, "Make me witnesses, faithful men, Urias the priest and Zacharias the son of Barachias." Achaz, the son of Joatham, surpassed all in impiety, on account of which he also found many evils. And not even so did he understand, but, "I will seek," he said, "the gods of the nations who strike me, and I will sacrifice to them, and they will support me." But he also led his sons through fire. But what is this? As Josephus records, he offered one of his sons as a whole burnt offering to Baal. "I think," says Theodoret, "the form of error that has reached until our times is alluded to from this. For once in the year we see fires being lit, and certain boys and men jumping over them, and indeed infants being carried through the flame by their mothers. This seemed to be a certain diversion of evil and purification. I think this accusation was made against Achaz, whom, when he died, they did not deem worthy of royal honor."

^A His son Jezechias was endowed with the highest virtue, and he performed all that his father David had done. Among other things, he destroyed the bronze serpent which Moses had made; for until those days, the children of Israel were burning incense to it. He also took the greatest care of the temple. Then, when there were not enough priests for the sacrifices, as the Book of Chronicles says, the Levites also assisted. This is something we can see even now; for when a priest is not present and the need is pressing, even a deacon is compelled to administer baptism to one who requests it. When Sennacherib had undertaken an expedition against him, he sent to Isaiah, saying: "This day is a day of anguish, and of searching, and of provocation, for the children are come to the birth, and there is no strength to the woman who is giving birth." By this he meant: We are burning and inflamed with anger at hearing the blasphemies of the Rabsaces, yet we are unable to punish the impious. For Sennacherib had ordered him, through the Rabsaces, to say: "Let not your God, in whom you trust, deceive you." But God, as soon as the king went into the temple and prayed, dispatched the prophet Isaiah, announcing the good things that would happen to him, using, among other words, these: "I will shield this city for my own sake and for the sake of David my servant." These things were spoken by God so that Jezechias would not think his prayer was heard because of his own righteousness. From this we learn that the just, even after they are dead, act as patrons of the living. Jezechias, however, both trusted in God and contributed his own diligence. First, he blocked the springs that were before the city; then he raised the towers to a greater height and built another outer wall. It happened also at that time that he fell ill to the point of death, such that, having become humble, he turned to the Lord, ^B as it is related in the Book of Chronicles: "And Jezechias humbled himself," it says, "from the pride of his heart." Since his father, Achaz, had received the prophecy: "Behold, the virgin shall conceive," he thought himself to be the Emmanuel and that the promise would reach its conclusion in him. Wherefore, practicing virginity, he had no desire to enter into marriage. But even when he had seen the destruction of the aliens (for in one night thousands were destroyed by an angel), he became all the more confirmed in his own foolish opinion. Wherefore he was disciplined by the Lord, being afflicted in his foot with a rot; but then God gave him a sign so that he would know he would not die at that time: "Behold, I will turn the shadow of the steps, which the sun has already gone down, ten steps on the steps of your father's house." They say that Achaz had constructed by some mechanism in his house certain steps which were like a clock and measured the path of the sun. Then, therefore, God—so that he might believe what was said (for fifteen years of life were added to him)—caused the shadow of the sun to go backward, since Jezechias himself was also returning from the sunset of his life to a second beginning of life; on account of which the sign of the sun, and no other, was given. ^D

^A And according to Hippolytus, that day became thirty-two hours long; for the sun, having traversed ten levels, ran back over the same ones, and then, having used its own order, came to the sunset having traversed the twelve again. And so much for Hippolytus; but Eustathius, the patriarch of Antioch, says that that day came to be twenty-two hours; for he seems to say that the retrogradation of the sun occurred in the twinkling of an eye, not in ten hours. Thus, that day indeed became twenty-four hours long, in which Jesus, the son of Nave, caused the sun to stand in the very zenith for the duration of a whole day; for it had ascended for six hours, and through similar ones again to the middle of the heaven. ^B Know, however, beloved, that the sun did not stand still primarily, nor did the miracle happen concerning the sun alone, but concerning the first heaven itself; for it being hindered from its forward movement by the divine command, it was an absolute necessity that the sun, which is moved along with it, should also stand still. And be persuaded by the great Maximus, who, in his writings to Thalassius, discusses this matter in these very words: “God restrained the unrestrained course of the sun and the moon in a paradoxical manner, having caused the ever-moving nature of the universe to be motionless. These things, however, the God who works wonders for all things brings about, so that from this he might clearly show that neither law nor necessity is laid upon the stars, just as the many thought, seeing them always moving in the same way. He causes them, therefore, to stand, presenting the power that is inherent in Him over all things, and allows them to be carried again according to the law entrusted to them from the beginning.” ^C Accordingly, Merodach, the king of Babylon, sends his ambassadors to Ezechias on account of both the sickness and the miracle concerning the sun. But he, having passed over all other things, showed his wealth to the ambassadors, on account of which the following things were said to him by Isaias the prophet: “Behold, days are coming, and all that is in your house shall be taken, and they shall go away to Babylon. And your sons, whom you shall beget, shall be eunuchs in the house of the king of Babylon.” By “sons” he means the three children together with the prophet Daniel; for these have become descendants of Ezechias. Therefore, the Scripture is accustomed to name descendants as sons, just as it also calls David the father of Ezechias; for Ezechias is not a son of David, but certainly his descendant. Merodach, however, as has been said from above, sent to Ezechias for the sake of the miracle concerning the sun; for the Ares [i.e., the Chaldean astronomer] says that its retrogradation was most paradoxical. ^D sendit, nisi propter prodigium illud de sole. Narrat enim re- trogradationem ejus tantam fuisse, ut rem plane inusitatam et paradoxam judicarit.

certainly would not have received such gentle treatment from them, nor would they have so readily accepted his suggestions. This, therefore, was the reason, according to the opinion of our holy fathers and teachers discussed above, why the ^A all-wicked one used the serpent—and no other instrument—to deceive our first parents.

But whence is it clear that the devil spoke through the serpent, since Scripture says nothing of the sort anywhere? Behold, for even Paul makes mention of the serpent, saying: "I am afraid that the serpent deceived Eve by his craftiness." Whence, then, is it clear that the devil speaks through the serpent? The Lord Himself removed the difficulty, lest anyone should attribute sin to the serpent alone. For to the Jews, when they said to Him, "We are from God," He said, "If you were from God, you would do the will of God. Now you are from your father the devil. He was a murderer from the beginning." Hence it is clearly demonstrated that by speaking through the serpent itself, the devil brought about the human race's subjection to death. If this were not so, he who was immortal would not have become mortal. And if you do not believe what is said, trust the wise Solomon, who says: "God did not make death, but created man for incorruption; but through the envy of the devil, death entered the world." It is therefore manifest ^C that the all-wicked one himself spoke through the serpent; for if this were not so, the Lord would not have called him a murderer.

And since these things are so, for what reason does Scripture mention only the serpent, and remain completely silent about matters concerning the devil? Because of the idolatrous madness of the Jews. For, as the divine Anastasius of Sinai says, so they would not, upon learning that there are certain other natures, deify them, the Mosaic book does not discourse ^D on the nature of demons or angels. For if, even after so many miracles, they declared the image of the calf to be God, what would they not have done if they had received the knowledge of invisible natures? That these things are so is clear from what...

^A and returned, bringing with him the holy tile—that hand-made-by-no-human-effort imprint of the form of Christ our God, which he found in Hierapolis, having coveted that city—and a lock of the hair of John the Baptist, matted with blood. Even though Nicephorus was such a man, and had increased the Roman state to such a degree (for he occupied more than a hundred cities and fortresses in Cilicia, Syria, and Phoenicia, the greatest and most illustrious of which were Anazarbus, Adana, and the others, or Mamistra, also called Mopsus' Hearth, Tarsus, Pagrae, Synephium, Aleppo, and Laodicea, and moreover made those in Phoenicia, namely Tripoli and Damascus, tributary), nevertheless he became hateful to every man, and everyone thirsted to see his destruction. For even if many most beautiful qualities shone in him, yet two evils stained him: his illicit union with Theophano, and his miserliness and lack of generosity toward all.

For a famine once gripped the city, such that one medimnos [of wheat] was sold for a gold coin. Phocas learned of this and remedied the affliction in a petty manner; for having opened the public granaries, he ordered two medimnoi to be sold for a gold coin, not imitating in this the Macedonian Basil. For that emperor, seeing the Byzantines mourning and learning that the famine was the cause of their sorrow, ordered that twelve medimnoi be sold for a gold coin.

Also, when the Emperor Phocas at that very time had gone out as if to exercise the army, and a man white-haired with age came and tried to be enrolled among the soldiers, he said to him: “But you, O man, being old, how are you eager to be enrolled in my army?” The other, answering aptly, said: “I am much stronger now than when I was in my prime.” The same emperor asked: “And how so?” The man, using irony, said that he had previously loaded two mules with the grain of one gold coin, but under his reign, he was able to carry on his shoulders the grain bought for two gold coins. Understanding the irony, he went away, not at all disturbed.

Furthermore, having overthrown the cities counted above, he left only Antioch passed by, even though he was capable of overthrowing it. He left it specifically, fearing the rumor that was spread; for it was said that as soon as the city of Antioch was captured, the emperor would die. Wherefore, having left Michael Bourtzes as guardian in those parts, and a certain eunuch named Peter as commander of the camp, and having enjoined them by no means to assault Antioch, he came to the imperial city. But Bourtzes, wishing to gain a reputation for himself, despised his orders, and having besieged the city in every way, captured it. Phocas, learning this, was not a little vexed, and he lashed out at Bourtzes with insults and removed him from his command. From this, therefore, the hatred against him took its beginning; in addition to these things, also those under his hand [to the frequent...]

^A Although God led these to him, and although He subjected all things under his feet, as David says, yet sin deprived him of this dominion too. But how did it deprive him? Not because such dominion was inherently susceptible to anarchy, as most people suppose, but because Adam, by transgressing the commandment given to him, fell away from all those things which had been entrusted to him by God through grace.

So it is, most holy one, even regarding immortality itself. For if we believe that God does all things and transforms them by His own will, as the prophet Amos also says concerning this, we must of necessity believe that He makes the mortal out of the immortal, and conversely, makes the immortal out of the mortal and corruptible. Therefore, let no one say that Adam was created susceptible to death from the beginning, if indeed after a short time he fell into corruption and death. Pay no mind to them, since they are clearly playing with things that are not for play. For at the same time that Adam transgressed the commandment, at that same time he became susceptible to death. And the Holy Scripture confirms this word, saying: "On whatever day you eat from the plant, you shall die the death." And what need is there to say much? If Adam had been created susceptible to death from the beginning, Solomon would not have said, "God did not make death." For these things are in complete harmony with one another. It appears, therefore, from this that at the moment he transgressed the commandment, at that same moment he became what he was not. But what is this? Was Adam not susceptible to death from the beginning? But having eaten from the wood, only then did he become susceptible to death. For, it says, at the hour you eat from the plant, you shall die the death. And do not wonder at this. For even if God imparted to him an intellectual soul, so that he was thenceforth immortal ^B for all time—and the Golden-Tongued one confirms this word—yet the transgression of the commandment, as has been said before, both stripped him of immortality and cast him out of Paradise, and caused him to turn back to the earth from whence he was taken. The prophet Amos, therefore, well said that God does and transforms all things by His own will for our benefit.

Recognize this, then. For if, as the argument has shown from many things, Adam was created by God incorruptible and immortal, whence then do those people launch into saying he was a medium between immortality and mortality? ^C Mortal, Adam could not be from the beginning—not because the body is not by its own nature mortal and dissoluble, but because the will of God is a stronger bond for every thing than that it could be dissolved for any reason, according to the golden doctrine of Plato in the *Timaeus*, where he introduces God the Creator addressing the gods thus: "Attend to these things, you who have arisen from the sowing of the gods: those works of which I am parent and effector are not dissoluble against my will: although everything that is bound can be solved. But it is by no means in the nature of goodness to wish to dissolve a bond. But since you have been born, you cannot be immortal or indissoluble. Yet you shall not be dissolved by any means, nor shall any fates of death destroy you, nor is fraud mightier than my counsel: which is a greater bond for your perpetuity than those by which you were bound when you were being begotten," as M. Tullius translated Plato's words into Latin. However, what Glycas says, that Adam began to be able to die after sin, does not look to free will but to the condition of the body; for even before sin, by his own choice, he could die—namely, by sinning—and fall into a mortal condition. Let Peter Lombard be consulted, Book II of the *Sentences*, dist. XIX, and Thomas, I, I, Q. xcvii, art. 1, where it is shown that Adam was immortal only by the gift of God, not by his own nature, which they learned from Augustine, *De civitate Dei*, bk. XIII, ch. 20, 23; bk. VIII, *De Genesi ad litteram*, ch. 4 and 5, and the author of the *Questions of the Old and New Testament*, qu. 19.

It seems rightly said that Adam could be considered a medium between mortality and immortality before sin: for he was immortal by the gift of God, mortal by nature and condition; immortal if he had wished to remain obedient, mortal if he had failed by sinning against God. Excellently, Peter Lombard, Book II of the *Sentences*, dist. XIX: "The first man, therefore..."

EPISTLE VIII

First of all, it is necessary to speak concerning these things, O divinely-like man, as to what is the condition laid up there for the just, and how each one of them and in what manner they will rest after the life here; for thus the discussion concerning this head will become more evident to those who attend. For if we hear our Savior Jesus Christ saying in the Gospels, "In my Father's house there are many mansions" (John XIV, 2), he does not thereby make mention of a difference of dwellings raised up here or there and allotted to the just, but rather the properties of the charismata in reference to the evangelical and divine Word. For the rest, the difference is in the charismata; for the mansion is one and not many. But what is that mansion, and whence are the charismata distributed to the just? Our Lord Jesus Christ himself is then established as all things to all. He himself is the mansion, and the ineffable joy of the just; he himself is the enjoyment, he himself is the resurrection of all. And this is manifest from those things which [Gregory] the Theologian is found saying in this way: "Henceforth I will not cast off what was agreed upon by me in baptism, so that I might not fall from the blessedness of that place. And this is the more expressive comprehension of the Trinity."

In addition to these, the most holy Barlaam, having been asked what the kingdom of heaven is, gave such an answer to that Joasaph: "As I have learned from the Scripture, it is to become near to the contemplation of the holy Trinity; and with unveiled face to behold its glory." Hence, all the just will gaze upon the intelligible sun, and will become participants of that divine light, even if not all equally; but each one according to his own purity. For just as this sensible sun is set forth for the sight of all, and it sends forth its rays to one less, and to another more vehemently; but just as it is received by each accordingly, according to the disposition of the eyes; so you must believe it will be then concerning that inaccessible splendor, and those who cling to it. For according to the blessed Paul, a transformation

^A they contend with their whole heart that he had, and they do not pronounce him immortal in every way according to the dignity conferred upon him before sin. Let them give an answer to these points. But they could not say anything. For those men, as you see, do not only insist that he was in a middle state, but they also do not hesitate to attribute natural afflictions to him who, before sin, was free from corruption and destruction and impassible. And they do this without any proof, as was said, from Scripture. But do not fear on this account. For that man was of such a nature from the beginning, namely incorruptible and impassible, and that in some way he did not suffer, being superior to any corruption, the Gold-Tongued [Chrysostom] showed in his seventeenth homily on the *Hexaemeron*, saying that man before sin possessed such impassibility as angels have, and that he was a participant in ineffable glory; and he showed it much more clearly in his book *On the Statues*, since he was making an argument about this. For because some were calumniating this corruptible body to such an extent that they even called it unworthy of the creation of God—for they said that if it were a creature of the divine hands, it would not be subject to such a myriad of afflictions—he used arguments against them like this: "Let no one speak to me of this man who has offended, who has been condemned, who has been disgraced. But if you wish to learn what kind of body God fashioned for us from the beginning, let us go to paradise and look at the man who was created at the beginning." For that body was not then corruptible and subject to time, but, like some golden statue having come forth from a furnace and shining brilliantly, thus that body was exempt from all corruption; and ^B neither did toil trouble it, nor did sweat damage it, nor did anxieties plot against it, nor did sadnesses besiege it, nor was it vexed by dirt, nor tears, nor any other such passion. But after he behaved insolently toward his benefactor, and hoped to become God, and took up an understanding beyond his own dignity, then, truly then, God, schooling him, made him corruptible and mortal, and bound him to these many necessities. Thus far that most divine John. Therefore, the discourse rightly called that body incorruptible. For that which is not subject to any kind of corruption is certainly incorruptible. But if it was incorruptible, how, I ask, and in what way did it suffer? We desire to learn this. For we cannot understand by our own reflections how a body [remained] from any corruption... ^C according to the nature of an earthly body, he was immortal in a certain way, in one sense, because he could not die, and mortal in a certain way, because he could die. For in that first state he had the ability to die and the ability not to die. Therefore, Augustine says of him in book XII of *The City of God*, chap. 23: "He was prevented from the necessity of death not by an absolute and indissoluble immortality, but by the tree of life." It is therefore a source of wonder that Glycas is not afraid to attack these such manifest things. See a little lower down.

[Note: The remaining paragraph summarizes that man is said to be free from natural pains before sin in the sense that he was not disturbed by passions that cause nature to decay, but rather possessed capacities whereby nature is restored, as Thomas teaches (I, q. 97, art. 2). Hence, the great Augustine writes in book XIV of *The City of God*, chap. 10: "How happy, then, were they, and by no perturbations of mind were they agitated, and by no bodily inconveniences were they harmed..."]

^A of it; and he said: "My father committed many wicked acts from his youth, and in his old age he repented. And now I will go as my soul desires, and afterwards I will return to the Lord." For this reason God did not wait, because he was not brought to his senses by the things his father suffered. Amosus formed a certain wicked thought in his mind, for he said: "My father committed many wicked acts from his youth, and in his old age he repented. Therefore I also at this age will carry on according to the lust of my soul, and then I will turn to the Lord." On this account, God did not wait for his repentance, since he had not become better because of his father’s calamities. Josiah his grandson succeeded him in the kingdom. This one acquired the piety of his ancestor David. And first of all he took care of the temple, having destroyed, among other things, the house which Solomon had built for Astarte, the abomination of the Sidonians; then, having heard the divine words in Deuteronomy, he both tore his garments and lamented greatly. For this reason God indeed pronounced the sentence against the people and the temple, but for the king He predicted good things: "Because," He says, "you heard my words and your heart was softened, and you tore your garments and wept before me, your eyes will not see all the evils that I am bringing upon this house." He smashed the vessels of the idols into the brook of Cedron, and he burned the priests of the idols in Bethel, according to the prophecy of Joel, that man of God. In the times of King Josiah, as George says, the city of Byzantium was founded by Byzas, king of Thrace (40). ^B It must be known that Nebuchadnezzar pillaged Jerusalem three times: under Joakim, under Jechonias, and later under Zedekiah, as George says. Theodoret, following the most divine Jeremiah, says that Joakim and Jechonias are the same person. Zedekiah, according to the great Epiphanius, was blinded, led off to Babylon, and cast into a mill for twenty-six years, even if he was later honored. Thus, the years of those who reigned in Jerusalem from David until Zedekiah amount to 498, and there were twenty-two kings in all from the single line of David. Those who reigned in Samaria were 18, from Jeroboam until Oseas, under whom Samaria ceased and perished at the hands of Salmanasar. In place of the Samaritans, Assyrians settled there, from whom the heretical Samaritans and Sadducees ^C arose. These, being consumed by lions that suddenly set upon them, and having learned from the old men there the God honored in that place, and that it was from Him that such things were suffered—though some say Byzas. From this passage, and certain others, the reader will learn that the chronicle of George Syncellus is not complete and finished in all its parts, as it appeared in print, issued from the manuscript copy of the Royal Library by the Rev. Father Jacques Goar of the Order of Preachers at the Royal Press, but that certain things are still missing from it, to be supplied from other, more abundant records, if any should happen to occur. Let the reader observe, however, that our Glycas was deceived while he confused King Jechonias with his successor Zedekiah, contrary to the authority ^D of the sacred pages. For neither was Zedekiah, when led to Babylon, honored later, but Joachim, the son of Joakim, who was also called Jechonias, concerning whom the sacred writer says in the last chapter of the fourth book of Kings: "And it happened in the thirty-seventh year of the captivity of Joachim, king of Judah." It happened indeed in the thirty-seventh year of the transmigration of Joachim, king of Judah, in the 12th month, on the 27th day of the month, Evilmerodach, King of Babylon, lifted up the head of Joachim, king of Judah, from prison, and he spoke to him, etc.

^A for the sake of reminder and instruction? That which suffers is of necessity corruptible. But if Adam was corruptible, because he was subject to suffering, how do they again insist that he was a nature intermediate between the incorruptible and the corruptible? These ^B things seem to us, for the time being, to be irrational and very unlearned; for if, as they say, the divine Gregory said that the body of Adam was a medium between magnitude and humility, that is between immortality and mortality, why did this great man beforehand call it temporary? Let them render an answer to these points. For if it was temporary, it is evident that it was also mortal. And if Adam was mortal, because he had a body that was temporary, how did he later say it was a medium between magnitude and humility? Understand therefore, O holy head, that in discussing a few ^C things regarding the common nature of men, the divine Gregory gave, I know not how, the opportunity to the aforementioned Father to opine that he was discussing such things regarding the first Adam. Thus therefore, most holy one, even the medium of magnitude and humility was not written by the great man, as I suppose, concerning corruption and incorruption, but altogether concerning soul and body. For the soul of a man, having received its existence through the divine inbreathing, was admittedly greater than this clay body. And what need is there to say much? ^D If you should carefully examine the theological syllables, and furthermore the explanation issued upon them, then you have to learn what the difference is among them, and that such an explanation seems to oppose the pious rationale to a very high degree. For at once, the "temporary and immortal," and "the existence in order to suffer, and by suffering, that one be reminded and instructed," and "that the animal be managed from thence, and transferred elsewhere," none of these will in any way fit that progenitor ^A and first Adam; unless perhaps we say that even before the transgression he was subject to corruption and mortality—he who was created for incorruption according to the image of the eternity of God. It would have been better to be silent on these matters, since we have perceived that the divine Gregory himself said nothing of the sort, at least concerning the first Adam for the time being. For how could he, if in proceeding further he even gives him a body exempt from all corruption, ^B and confirms the argument in which he spoke thus word for word: "And without any covering and protection; for such it was fitting for him who was from the beginning to be"? On which it is also worthy to note: if it was fitting for him who was from the beginning to be such—not in need, that is, of any covering and protection, and this is entirely perfect impassibility—it is evident that the "temporary and immortal" and "the existence in order to suffer, and by suffering, that one be reminded and instructed," pertained to the common nature of men... ^C (Thus Plato writes in his *Statesman* that in the golden age men lived for the most part nude and without any coverings under the open sky. "Naked, indeed," he says, "and unburdened, and wandering, they lived for the most part.") ^D (Lucretius, book V: "Nor did they yet know how to handle things with fire, nor to use/ Skins, and clothe the body with the spoils of beasts./ But they frequented groves, and hollow mountains and forests,/ And amid the thickets were hiding their squalid limbs, etc.") (Not only as concerning the soul, which the Stoics strove to introduce, but also concerning the body. Concerning the apathia of the Stoics, see what we have noted lower down regarding this same epistle.)

801 ^A nor was man merely the handiwork of divine hands.” And these things, indeed, this aforementioned divine man discourses concerning paradise; from which it is possible for the attentive reader to learn that he is a more divine creature, and superior to this corruptible creation. For if this were not so, never would that Adam, while dwelling therein, have exulted and rejoiced; never would he who was incorruptible, living in an incorruptible state, have enjoyed a blessed life. That these things are so, and that that place was of such a kind, the great Basil himself clearly demonstrated regarding paradise, discoursing as follows: “Thus also, he made the habitancy of man the work of his own hand, a place superior to the whole of creation, situated in a conspicuous spot, inaccessible to darkness, and on account of its height, easily seen; no hurricane there, no tempest, no hail, no wintry freezing; the earth was rich and soft, watered by most fertile streams. But how shall I bring into your sight the things that are in that fatherland? How shall I call you back to it from this exile?” Learn therefore from this, O sacred head, of what nature paradise is. For even if we grant, along with all the rest, that it also is bounded by the ocean which encompasses the whole earth, just as the majority have thought, nevertheless, consider it to be superior to this life which is being altered and is changing at every hour. For if this were not so, it would not have been said to be situated in a conspicuous spot; it would not have been ^B higher than the whole earth; it would not have been adorned with ever-blooming and immortal plants. That these things are so, and that paradise is above this earth, the one wise in divine things, Theodoret, also indicated, saying thus: “Out of the whole earth, then, as a certain excellent spot towards the East, God having chosen what is called Eden, in it he constructed paradise; in which, desiring to honor man whom he had created, he commanded him to dwell.” Attend therefore: for it appears from this that paradise was free from corruption. For if this were not so, he would not have placed man in it when he wished to honor him; and these things are attested by the entire holy Scripture, which testifies that this was created free from corruption. And what need is there to say many things? Paradise was free from corruption; if it were bounded by the ocean which encompasses the whole earth, as they say, that universal deluge would necessarily have reached even it, ^C and corrupted it along with the rest as being subject to corruption, since at that time the water, as the Scripture says, was raised fifteen cubits above all the mountains. It is manifest, therefore, also from this that paradise is superior to this mutable life. But if it is superior to this life, it is manifest that it is also free from corruption; and if it is free from corruption, it is an absolute necessity that all the plants in it also be superior to corruption. For if, as some think, these were subject to corruption and change, then it must be said that he who tasted of the sensible food was entirely in the state of participation in it. And what need is there to say many things? If paradise was corruptible, the most divine Ambrose and the martyr of Christ, Justin, would not have said that it was shameful to assert that the ^D of [the world...].

^A For the phrase "according to the image" signifies nothing other than the principle of rule and dominion. For just as the God of all things holds rule over all, both visible and invisible, being the creator of all, so too, having created this rational animal, He willed him to have dominion over all seen things; for which reason He also graced him with the essence of his soul, willing him to be immortal for all time. But do not doubt what is said, since even Solomon set this forth, saying: "God created man for incorruption, and [as] an image of His own eternity" (Wis. 2:23). And his state would indeed have been thus perpetual; but because he slipped through sloth and transgressed the commandment given to him, He did not even then turn away from him completely; but having deprived him of immortality, and having condemned him to death, He left him in almost the same principle of rule.

^B 5: It is not at all implausible to say that the likeness to God resides in man according to the principle of rule. For the governing of all things upon the earth has been given to him.

He was not, however, cast out of it entirely, lest the grace be found worthless, but it was mutilated. For it was not just that the one who was defeated should also be crowned, but that he should be disciplined by the fear of wild beasts.

Furthermore, even having transgressed the commandment, He did not turn away from him completely, but having deprived him of immortality, and having condemned [him] to death, He left him in that same rule. Therefore, it is clear that before the eating, man was immortal; for if he were not at that time, He would not have brought death upon him after the eating in the order of punishment, as the golden-tongued John says in his sixteenth homily. But it is worth attending here. For God did not only will to appoint him king of all things seen, but He also showed his established rule through the works themselves. For He brought all the animals to him at that time, even though He was not ignorant of the future, and so all things, standing in a servile state, received their names from him. Thus, therefore, He honored him through his intellectual soul and immortality; for if, inasmuch as he possesses reason, he holds power even today. For if you see wild beasts exercising arrogance and sometimes looking shamelessly at him, do not wonder; for even this happens by all means according to divine economy, so that from this we might be reminded, even against our will, of the sin on account of which we were condemned to fear and tremble before those subjected to our rule. ^C It is not, however, inconsistent with truth to say that the likeness to God also exists in man in respect to his capacity to rule. For the power to rule over all things on earth was given to him. Theodoret asks, in question 20 on Genesis: Some have said that man was created according to the image of God in respect to the faculty of ruling, using a most clear argument from the fact that the Creator added, “And let him have dominion over the fish of the sea, and the birds of the sky, and the beasts, and the whole earth, and all the reptiles that creep upon the earth.” For just as He Himself holds the rule over all, so He gave to man dominion over the irrational animals. Theodoret himself was of this opinion in his comment on 1 Corinthians 11:7; also Isidore of Pelusium, book 3, epistle 95; John Chrysostom, homily 10 on Genesis; and Diodorus of Tarsus, according to Theodoret. And Augustine seems not to dissent from this in book 1 of *De Genesi contra Manichæos*, chapter 17.

Isidore of Pelusium, epistle 95, book 3, teaches that Adam's rule was indeed mutilated after the sin, but not entirely taken away. For he was not cast out of all rule, lest the grace be found empty and void, but it was truncated. For it was not just that he who was defeated should also be crowned, but that he should be chastised by the fear of wild beasts. Thus our Glycas in the first part of his *Annales*.

Moreover, He did not entirely turn away from him [who had] transgressed His commandment, but having stripped him of immortality and condemned him to death, He left him in almost the same rule. For man, by means of the reason with which he is endowed, still retains all things in his power today. Although we see wild beasts occasionally rushing at man at their own will, we ought not to marvel at this so much, since it happens by divine counsel, so that in this way we may be admonished, even against our will, of the sin for whose cause this punishment befell us: that we should fear those subjected to our rule. The same is taught by John Chrysostom, homily 9 on Genesis. Excellently, Ambrose, book 6 of *Hexaemeron*: "Nothing seemed more robust in the created order than the elephant, nothing so terrible or tall: nothing so wild as lions or tigers: and these serve man, and lay aside their nature through human instruction; they forget what they were born, they put on what they are ordered. Why say more! They are taught like little ones, they serve like the infirm, they are beaten like the timid, they are corrected like subjects: they pass into our customs, because they have lost their own motions."

Man was immortal not only as regards the soul, but the soul itself, before the first man's sin, was the provider of immortality for the body, as Thomas teaches, 1, 1, Quest. xcv, Art. 1. For he writes: For his body was not indissoluble by any vigor of immortality; but there was in the soul a certain power, supernaturally given by God, by which the body was able to be preserved from all corruption…

generation of those who were allotted to rule. Christ was born, he who was also the expectation of the nations. This man, Herod, as has been recounted, having fought alongside Augustus Caesar with his own expenses when he marched against Cleopatra, received the kingship in Judea as a sort of honorary gift from him. And concerning these matters, so be it.

When Nebuchadnezzar was boasting and speaking great things regarding the beautiful city which he had built, a voice came from heaven saying: "Nebuchadnezzar, your kingdom has passed from you, and they shall drive you from men, and your dwelling shall be with the beasts, and they shall feed you grass like an ox. And seven times shall pass over you, until you know that the Most High rules over the kingdom of men." And in that very hour these things were fulfilled, and along with the others, his hair was magnified like a lion’s, and his nails like a bird’s. He suffered these things because he boasted about the vision of the image; for from that point he supposed himself to be a god. Whence he also set up his own image for the sake of it being worshipped, and he lit that furnace. After this, he sees a second dream: a tree reaching to heaven, covered on all sides with birds. A voice from above threatened the cutting down of the tree, without its root, however. Daniel clarifies this vision, and says that for seven years he would herd with the beasts on the mountains, then return to his kingdom. And this is indeed what happened.

Furthermore, when Nebuchadnezzar was boasting magnificently regarding the name of that city which, by building it, he had brought to impressive elegance, a voice from heaven was heard, which uttered words of this sort: "Your kingdom, Nebuchadnezzar, has now departed from you, and you will be driven away from the gatherings of mortals; you will live among wild beasts; you will feed on the grass of the field; and seven years will be spent by you in this way, until you acknowledge that there is a certain Most High, by whose judgment and power the kingdoms of mortals are held." When these things had been spoken, the outcome answered in that very hour. For among other things, his hair grew to the size of lion's hair, and likewise he acquired claws that matched the claws of birds. He suffered these things because, among other reasons, he had taken too great airs after the vision he saw in his sleep; for he thought he was a god. Led by this opinion, he erected his own statue so that it might be worshipped, and he even lit a furnace into which those who refused to do what was commanded would be thrown.

Following these, he had that other dream in which he saw a tree reaching even to heaven, in which birds of every kind were singing. A voice issued from heaven which threatened the cutting down of the tree, the root being excepted, however. Daniel also interprets that dream, and predicts that it would come to pass that he would wander for seven years among the mountain beasts; when that time passed, he would recover his kingdom, just as also occurred.

Nebuchadnezzar’s successor in the empire was his son, and after him another son, Belshazzar. When this man had given a banquet and invited his magnates, he sat drinking and gluttonizing, having for service at such a banquet those sacred vessels which Nebuchadnezzar had taken away from the divine temple in Jerusalem. On account of this, God is angered. Because of this, He decrees the total destruction of those who despise Him. Belshazzar therefore sees on the plaster of the wall of the house in which he was sitting, while he was celebrating the banquet, the knuckles of a hand and letters declaring: "Mene, Tekel, Phares." Whence the king is not a little troubled by these things. He asks his wise men about them; but they swear that they know nothing. The prophet Daniel is also summoned; for the prophetic power in him had become clearly manifest when he both spoke and clarified that marvelous vision of Nebuchadnezzar. For he saw in a dream a multi-colored image and a stone cut without hands from a mountain, which shattered the image. But he had forgotten the vision. Having become awake, he sought to learn the vision. And while all his wise men were at a loss, and...

^A And thus he speaks word for word: "Enoch was pleasing to God, and he is transferred." And observe the goodness of the Master. For when he had found a man who had performed the duties of virtue, he did not deprive him of that dignity which he had bestowed upon the first-formed man before the transgression of the commandment. But what was the dignity which God bestowed upon the first man in the beginning? It was to be incorruptible, immortal, and exempt from destruction, as the argument has already clearly shown. This dignity Adam indeed received, but he lost it nonetheless, because he transgressed the commandment and because he touched the tree with a perverse design. Wherefore, so that we do not despair completely, as though we were never to recover that immortality, he transfers Enoch, deems him worthy of incorruptibility, and thus prepares him to live for ages, teaching by this that our mortal nature awaits the boundaries of that immortality ^B from which it fell through the transgression of sin. Take heed, therefore. For if this is so, what need is there to say more? For if that first man possessed this incorruptibility, which God taught that the mortal nature awaits by transferring Enoch, it appears clearly that man was created by God from the beginning such as the divine oracles declare he will rise from the dead. So do not hesitate. Reflect with yourself on what Anastasius of Sinai also set forth most clearly in his oration *On the Resurrection* concerning these things in this manner ^C: "Such a body is raised from the dead as it was from the beginning, having cast off all that had befallen it on account of sin." Attend, therefore: if it rises such as it was from the beginning—and it is certain that the body then rising will be superior to death and corruption, which the great Paul testifies: "It is necessary..." [In this section, the text follows the argumentation of the Latin doctors, in particular as noted by Augustine, *De peccatorum meritis et remissione*, book 3, affirming that Enoch and Elijah do not remain alive in any other way than the first man and his descendants, had he not sinned, would have been immortal. For if God, he says, provided for the Israelites that their garments and sandals did not wear out for so many years, what is the wonder if the same power were provided to an obedient man, so that, having an animate and mortal body, he might have in it a certain state of life without decay of years, ^D at a time which God might will, to move from mortality to immortality without undergoing intermediate death? For just as this very flesh which we now have is not non-vulnerable because it is not necessary that it be wounded, so that body was not non-mortal because it was not necessary that it die. I believe such a condition was granted even to those who were translated from here without death, while still in an animate and mortal body. For neither did Enoch and Elijah wither from old age through so long a time, nor yet do I believe them to have been already changed into that spiritual quality of body which is promised in the resurrection, etc.] [Augustine, *De civitate Dei*, book 13, chapter 20, speaks thus concerning the body of the saints restored in the final resurrection: "Not only will it not be such as it is now in every best state of health, but not even such as it was in the first men before sin. Who, though they would not have died unless they had sinned, used food like men, not yet carrying spiritual, but as yet earthly animate bodies." Chapter 23 follows: "The first man was made of the earth, earthy, into a living soul, not into a life-giving spirit, which was reserved for him through the merit of obedience. Therefore, his body, which required food and drink so that it would not be afflicted by hunger and thirst, and was restrained from the necessity of death not by that absolute and indissoluble immortality, but by the tree of life, and was kept in the flower of youth, was without doubt not spiritual, but animate; never to die, however, unless he had sinned by transgressing the judgment of the One who foretold and warned."]

^A others adopted other such notions out of poor judgment. Whence it is that even the older of the ecclesiastical expositors—Philo the philosopher and Papias of Hierapolis, who was contemporary with the Apostles, Irenæus of Lyons, Justin the martyr and philosopher, Clement the secretary, and the divine Cappadocian Gregories—while they wished to overturn these most shameful notions, yet, at the same time, looking to the divinely inspired Scripture, as Paul counsels, they contemplated all matters regarding Paradise spiritually, truly handling their own treatises for the sake of dispensation [oikonomikos].

But perhaps you produce the great Basil, the golden-tongued and divine John, the blessed Epiphanius, and the most divine Cyril, and you say that they went through all matters in Paradise according to the letter. We know this also, and we would not deny it. But observe the dispensation [oikonomia] of the divine, God-minded Fathers; observe that Davidic utterance receiving its completion in them, which says: “A wise man will dispense his words in judgment.” For when they found the execrable Origen allegorizing the entire Hexaemeron into mythical tragedies, understanding nothing according to the letter—for he spoke vacuously of Adam and the Paradise as incorporeal, and understood all other things intellectually—they decided to leave aside the allegorists and to interpret their own treatises on the Hexaemeron according to the letter, and most wisely so. For they would not have called the fig tree a fig, and the fig again the tree of eating, if they had heard anyone speaking vainly about that first woman in relation to a tree of eating. ^B That Adam did not experience sensible eating in Paradise, the golden-tongued John himself, who used such great condescension [synkatabasis], clearly showed in his homilies on the Hexaemeron, by saying: “Adam had a wonderful life; for just as an angel, so did man dwell upon the earth, clothed in a body, yet existing outside of bodily needs.” If, therefore, he was superior to bodily needs, how or in what manner was he drawn to eating, neither exhaling his flesh through transpiration, nor being compelled by nature itself, as he possessed total freedom from passions? It appears, therefore, from this that that eating was something else, which the plants in Paradise provided to Adam, if indeed sensible eating is the replenishment of that which flows out secretly. And thus matters stand in this regard.

Do not approach the divine Scripture in a cursory manner, nor choose to attend to some teachers while thoughtlessly overlooking and turning away from others; for this is not without danger. But strive to reconcile all of them together with good will, as having spoken in one and the same Spirit. If they seem perhaps to differ among themselves, blame not the teachers themselves, but the times and the circumstances. For these, too, according to the blessed Paul, ^C striving for all things, by means of dispensation...

^A sleep, sweat, and all such things as entered into human life after the transgression. And why? In order that, having refined all these in the fire of the divinity, he might purify humanity and restore it again to the ancient dignity of incorruption, and impassibility, and immortality. For this reason, also, in becoming incarnate, he did not see fit to wear the body of the first Adam; for that body, being incorrupt, as that divine man already mentioned ^B says, had no need of healing. Rather, he assumed my flesh, which had fallen ill and turned aside, that he might heal it and deliver it from the passions to which man fell subject after sin; and that he might bring us back to himself—we who, because of wickedness, had flowed away from existence, as the divine Theologian Gregory says—through his incarnation. He is, therefore, as has been said, a man even as we are; he does all things and suffers for our salvation all those things that are recorded in the holy Gospels; finally, he is nailed to the cross, he is put to death, ^C and is deemed worthy of burial according to the Jewish law. Then why does he rise naked from the tomb, leaving the burial cloths there? He did this altogether to show that his most holy body was transformed into the incorrupt and immortal, and that it became such as the body of Adam was from the beginning, when, being naked, it was not in need of any covering, since it was not lacking the immortality bestowed by grace.

Thus, therefore, most holy one, the Lord’s body also, because it was subject to corruption before the passion, necessarily ^D stood in need of the protection of garments. But after the passion and the resurrection, having become incorrupt, it no longer stood in need of any covering. It was transformed, and as has been said, became incorrupt through the divinity of the Word dwelling within it, so that the whole nature of men might share in incorruption from that source and return to the ancient dignity of immortality. For if this were not the case, if he did not intend to renovate man, who had been broken by sin, and restore him to be as he was from the beginning, what else would have compelled him to become man as we are, and to do and suffer everything that the evangelical account has taught us? Let them go, therefore. For see how the Theologian Gregory also presents this very thing, discoursing thus: "A head of the mysteries of Christ is my perfection, and recreation, and return to the first Adam." If therefore, most holy one, God came to us in the flesh in order to refashion man who had been broken, and to renovate him who had grown old through sin, and to bring him back to his original dignity—that is, to that immortal and indestructible state, as the discourse has argued above—then those who dogmatize otherwise from their own heads, and who do not walk in accordance with the orthodox mind of the Church, are in error. Let them therefore go...

^A ...those who in their ignorance ended their lives in impiety; we made before Him such a response, saying: "For the salvation of mankind [the Word] truly became man." On which one might also be at a loss, saying: "Why did the events of the Incarnation not take place in the times before, so that from this everyone might have known the mystery concerning Christ?" But since we have heard the Lord in the Gospels saying: "Father, the hour has come," that is, the proper time, which was foreordained before the foundation of the world for the salvation of men (for if this were not so, He would not have said, "The Son of man goes according to the appointed time"), who is so confident in himself as to oppose so clearly those things which the Lord himself affirms? And this time seemed fitting, and suitable to the divine will, because that most holy Virgin ^B who was to serve the mystery concerning Christ was then brought into the world, and because at that time the disease of wickedness was waning (according to the divine Gregory of Nyssa), which had from the beginning afflicted the nature of humanity. For if He had become man beforehand, the wickedness that dwelt within would not have easily yielded to the remedies; nor would the nations, being called at that time, have heard; for a malady that is crude, as a certain wise man said, does not yield—that is, a corrupted humor that has penetrated into the depths is not easily drawn forth by the applications of medicines.

^C ...When the cursed demons, with the devil leading them, left nothing in order, but were filled with every injustice and greed; and knowing no satiety of the evil they wrought, drove men to the furthest extreme of passions—then, even then, the King of all, the Word of the Father, having hated the tyranny of the one side and pitied the calamities of the other, putting on human nature, stood in the battle line. Therefore, some trophies stood, others were being raised, and others were in hope. And the barbaric troop of demons, with their commander, lamented their misfortunes; but human nature ran back toward liberty. "When the wicked demons with their leader the devil had not allowed anything to remain in order, but gorging themselves on every kind of iniquity and violence, and finding no satiety in any injury or insolence, had driven men to extreme evils: then truly, then that King of all, the Word of the Father, and having hated the tyranny of those [demons], and having pitied the distresses of these [men], assuming human nature, emerged into the battle line. Wherefore, ^D trophies partly stood fixed, partly were erected, and partly remained to be hoped for: and that ferocious throng of demons with their evil leader grieved over the blow they had received: but human nature was restored again to liberty." Cyril of Alexandria also, in his book against the Anthropomorphites, chapter 24, discourses at length, and affirms that human nature was assumed by the divine Word when the darkness of wickedness had grown to its highest measure, and sin had superabounded. He himself also uses the example of the physician, but clearly to insinuate the opposite. Furthermore, Glykas discourses on these same things in the second part of his Annals.

ANNALS PART III. FROM THE REIGN OF CAESAR UNTIL CONSTANTINE THE GREAT

^A Maccabaeus, who, moved by a certain divine zeal, slew the royal commander and performed countless other glorious deeds. But King Antiochus, having set out against Persia, and returning in dishonor, seized by a most grievous disease, recognized his state, saying: "It is just that I suffer for those things which I have committed against Jerusalem." And casting forth worms, he breathed out his soul. ^B After him, his son Antiochus Eupator, during whose reign Judas Maccabaeus, having routed the commanders of Antiochus, stirred up Antiochus against himself with an infinite multitude and fifty-five elephants, upon which were wooden towers, each containing thirty-two armed soldiers. Then, indeed, then Judas performed great deeds, so as even to receive the high priesthood from the people. During his time, Jesus, the son of Sirach, having composed the all-virtuous work, was known to the Jews.

The affairs of the Romans were previously conducted by consuls for 464 years ^C until Julius Caesar, the "Caesar" — that is, the one not born by natural birth; for his mother having died in the ninth month of her pregnancy, they cut her open and brought him forth, whence he was called Caesar, from whom all the Roman emperors were called Caesars. He was dictator for ten years.

*PART III. FROM THE REIGN OF CAESAR UNTIL CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.*

Joannes Meursius, a Dutchman, a man excellently deserving of the literary republic, especially in publishing Greek writers—at Leiden in the year 1618, first published and translated into the Latin language the *Roman History* of Theodore Metochites from Julius Caesar to Constantine the Great, adding very brief notes, with a preface concerning Theodore Metochites himself, whose deeds he pursues, and Nicephorus Gregoras’s "Nenia" or Funeral Oration upon the same. ^D But the learned man was deceived in his opinion, and led many into error, whether deluded by some little Greek who sold this fragment of our Glykas to him, or to the Reverend Father Andreas Schottus (from whom he confesses to have received it) as if it had been compiled by Theodore Metochites; or whether the name of the possessor, which the title "Metochitov" displayed, transitioned into the appellation of the true author, which in this case was missing; or for whatever other reason. Therefore, the book of the singular *Roman History* is nothing other than the third book of Michael Glykas, and that not entirely complete—namely, from page 204 of this Royal edition to 245, where the unhappy death of Galerius Maximianus is described.

Concerning what else may be lacking in our work, we shall diligently compare the edition of Joannes Meursius with other manuscript codices which we have used thus far, and we shall attach his notes and emendations, designated by the capital letters JM.

Roman affairs were administered by consuls for 464 years-—564 years, according to Constantinus Manasses, at PG 157. The Alexandrian Chronicle holds for 393 years. To our Theodore (correct this, reader, and replace Theodore with Glykas), Cedrenus agrees, and he is the author of other things as well. Florus counts up to Augustus. Indeed, the opinion of Manasses is closer, which is confirmed by the Capitoline Fasti, from which it is thought that from the first consuls to the monarchy of Julius were 460 years—namely, as I am accustomed to think, from the year of the City 245, in which Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus first entered the consulship, up to the year 705 of the same Rome, in which C. Julius Caesar, created Dictator by Marcus Lepidus, prefect of the City, abdicated the dictatorship after the eleventh day, when he had been declared consul for the following year. On the same page, write for "eight" [in the text]. In the codex JM, mistakenly for "Ibidem" [it says] "eight." Leunclavius in his manuscript seems to have read "12," and thus translated "12 years," from which Joannes Meursius wrote this note: "Glykas [counts] 12 years, Cedrenus counts 4 years, 7 months," from which the Sicilian Fasti do not deviate. But instead of our Metochites (the *palimpsest* volume, which it is a wonder he did not recognize from the mutual comparison of the Leunclavian version as being indeed Glykas himself), the Capitoline Fasti prevail, which explicitly attribute the years to him. But falsely. For how many you will have counted from that first dictatorship initialized in the year U.C. 705, up to the Ides of March of the year 709, not yet finished, in which he perished, struck by many wounds in the Senate; you will have rightly declared that so many monarchs have existed.

^C They cut open her womb and he is said to have been taken out alive and unharmed from there. From this they say he was given the name Caesar, from which all the emperors of the Romans were called Caesars; for in the Roman tongue, cutting is called *Caesar*. This Julius Caesar was called dictator, that is to say, monarch; for he alone and first held the Roman scepter for 18 years. He gave laws to the Romans, and introduced the indictions and the leap year, and named the month of July, which was formerly called Quintilis. ^B After Julius, the one who from infancy was Octavius, but later was called Augustus because of his brilliance—though some others say he was the son of Octavius—reigned for 56 years. From him the emperors of the Romans were called *Sebastoi* and *Augusti*; and the month which was formerly called Sextilis was named August. Now Augustus or Caesar is called among the Romans as one who is something more than human; for all the most sacred and venerable things are called *augusta*. For this reason they also called him *sebastón* (venerable), from being revered, as a kind of sacred person. ^C Caesar, after having conquered his opponents, including Antony himself in a naval battle, held all power and became a monarch. And at the place of the camp, having built a city, he named it Nicopolis. He also set up bronze statues of a man and a donkey. For it is said that while it was still night, on the day the naval battle took place, he encountered a man driving a donkey; and when asked, he said: "For me, the name is Eutyches (Fortunate), but for the donkey, Nicon (Victor)." ^D These statues were later brought to Byzantium and set up in the Hippodrome. But he also, having conquered Cleopatra and subjected all of Egypt, destroyed the kingdom of the Ptolemies, which had lasted for 290 years. And having mastered the whole earth and having abolished the local rulers, he killed those who had murdered his uncle Julius. Then, truly then, the prophecy of Isaiah reached its end: "Nation shall not lift up sword against nation." For the local governorships and kingdoms and the wars between them were abolished. Or do you not know? When these things were being prophesied, one was ruling over Jerusalem, another over Samaria, and another over the Moabites. And Christ being born according to the flesh under the Roman Empire...

all the dominions of all nations were subject to its rule. ^A Here, note that from the rebuilding of Jerusalem, which took place under Nehemiah and Ezra, up to the last high priest Hyrcanus, whom Herod put to death, the number of his years is completed. From then on, and up to the manifestation of the Lord in the Jordan, the remaining seven weeks are counted, according to the prophecy of Daniel, which says thus: "Seventy weeks have been narrowed to destroy the vision and prophet, and to anoint the Holy of Holies," that is, Christ himself, the Son of God and God. However, after the killing of Hyrcanus, the high priests were appointed unlawfully; for they were not descended from him.

It is also said of Augustus Caesar that he was quick to anger, but was changed very quickly. ^B This man had pronounced the death sentence upon many people, but a certain wise man of that time, having written on a paper, threw it before Caesar. The letters said: "Executioner, cease judging." Reading these, Caesar departed from the throne and rendered all his decrees void. He was very fond of women, and especially of those who were married; and, what is worse, he would order husbands, even against their will, to be servants of such filth. But a certain wise Alexandrian by the name of Athenodorus, having often advised Caesar regarding such things, and being unable to persuade him at all, takes another route. For, having seen a certain man in the senate lamenting—for he was forced to enclose his own wife in a covered litter and send her to Caesar—he urged him to mourn no longer, but to enclose himself in the litter in place of his wife and be sent to Caesar. The man is persuaded, though with difficulty. And what transpired after this? Athenodorus enters, carrying a sword, and is thus sent through the litter to Caesar. Caesar receives him and breaks the seals. Athenodorus comes out brandishing the sword. Caesar is terrified, and promises by oaths never again to be defiled by alien beds. After this, Athenodorus, departing to the one who had brought him, and knowing Caesar to be temperamental, yet quick to change his mind, bows to his ear as though ^C as if to...

Apollodorus, the rhetorician of Pergamum, who became the teacher of Caesar Augustus, and who taught him together with the philosopher Athenodorus of Tarsus, lived for eighty-two years, the same as Athenodorus. ^D [Note: This section refers to scholarly discussion regarding the identity of Athenodorus.]

you have given me the command to carry out my duties for the remainder of my life, as if to someone who is about to defile the marriages of others. Upon this, Athenodorus, on the point of returning to his homeland—knowing that the Caesar was a man of precipitous anger, but of a kind that would suddenly burn out—leaned toward his ear as if to kiss him, and said: "Caesar Augustus, one thing only is still wanting to you. Do not pass sentence upon the accused before you have recited the twenty-four letters to yourself." Moreover, Caesar was so beloved by his subjects that a certain Roman citizen, when about to depart from life, commanded his children to offer thank-offerings to the gods, because he left Augustus alive behind him. When Caesar himself was departing from life, he said: "I found the city earthen, I have left it adorned with beautiful towers and marble." Furthermore, he said that he wished for many to clap their hands for him when he died, as is accustomed to be done at the death of a mime or a player. These words, in truth, looked to nothing else than that he was mocking this life. And so much for these matters.

Know, however, beloved son, that in the 42nd year of the reign of the aforementioned Augustus Caesar, our Lord Jesus Christ was born, according to the flesh, from the ever-virgin Mary. For this blameless woman was born according to a divine promise, and when she had reached her third year, she was led to the temple and spent a sufficient time in its inner sanctums, with her food provided by an angel, until she was fourteen years of age. Concerning this, the high priests, as was fitting, took counsel and offered prayers to God. At that time, she was betrothed to Joseph, God himself prompting this by means of the staff that sprouted. Then, indeed, the prophetic utterance received its fulfillment, which says: ^C "Behold, a sealed book is given to a man who knows letters," (that is, to one who had lived in marriage), "and he shall say, I cannot read it, for it is sealed." Not much time passed before a divine angel was sent to her, saying: "Hail, full of grace, the Lord is with you." She, having become startled at the word, and saying, "How shall this be, since I know not a man?" hears from Gabriel these things: "The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you." Observe that by saying "Holy Spirit" and "power of the Most High," by which Christ is signified (for Christ is the power of God), He revealed the whole holy Trinity in this. For even if the Son alone was incarnate, nevertheless the Father and the Holy Spirit were present with Him as He was being incarnate, according to the indivisibility of the consubstantiality, as the great Athanasius says. According to this, Paul also used to say that in Him ^D dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily, that is, substantially.

^B Accordingly, at that point her virgin womb conceives and swells. Joseph is troubled in no small measure by these things and considers secretly dismissing the pregnant woman. A divine angel stands by him in a dream, saying, "Do not be afraid to take Mary your wife; for that which is born in her is from the Holy Spirit." Having awakened, he took his wife, and knew her not until she had brought forth her firstborn Son. The great Basil says that Joseph knew not the all-holy one neither before the birth nor after the birth. For the word "until" is found in many places in Scripture to be indefinite, as when it says, "And the raven did not return until the earth was dried up"; for indeed, even after the drying up of the earth, the raven did not return. And elsewhere: "The Lord said to my Lord, 'Sit at My right hand, until I make Your enemies Your footstool.'" If "until" were not indefinite, we would say the Lord ceases to sit after His enemies are placed under His feet. But the Savior Christ also said to His disciples, "And I will be with you all the days until the end of the age." If "until" were not indefinite, then after the end of the age Christ would not be with His disciples. Moreover, Paul says this: "We shall be caught up in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air, and so we shall always be with the Lord." These things are dealt with in this way, but the great Athanasius says that he did not truly know her until she had brought forth the Lord. He did not know what was in her. Only when she had brought forth, then indeed he came to know. Then Joseph knew what the power of the Virgin was. Then he knew, when she had given birth and did not experience the conditions of childbirth, when she provided milk in an unusual way and a nipple strange to natural sustenance, when she gave the breast and did not undergo the veins' flowing. Do not consider this a strange thing. Since the one being born was God and man, of necessity He joined to Himself both the divine and the human. Human were the swelling of the womb, the nine-month period of gestation, the usual exit of the one being born, the nourishment of milk, and the growth from a small to His appropriate bodily stature; for according to the blessed Paul, He experienced all our attributes without the debt of sin. Divine, on the other hand, were the seedless conception, the miraculous pregnancy, and the undefiled birth. And this is what the theologian tongue said: "The laws of nature are dissolved." For among other things, the all-holy one brought forth Christ without maternal pangs; for according to the Damascene, where pleasure did not precede, reasonably neither did pain follow. That the signs of the gestation were miraculous, the Areopagite Dionysius also showed, speaking thus about

^A And God... but Adam lived two hundred and thirty years and begat a son according to his likeness and his image, that is to say, such as the image and radiance he had from the beginning, and he called his name Seth, which means "resurrection"; because he saw that miraculous form restored, for which reason even the people who lived at that time called him God. These things, then, the divine Macarius the Egyptian also seems to intimate. For through that glory which then shone upon the face of the God-seer Moses, into which no one could gaze, he represented both these things: namely, the glory which Adam had from the beginning, and that which the choir of the just will have hereafter. And hear what this divine man says word for word in his chapters: "I consider the glorified face of Moses to be a type and pattern of the first man fashioned by the hands of God." ^B And again: "The blessed Moses showed a type, through the glory of the Spirit shining on his face, of how the bodies of the saints will be glorified in the resurrection of the just." Well, therefore, did that discourse say that the resurrection is a return to that original and first life. Moreover, regarding what has already been said, the Savior showed something else by being transfigured. What is this? That glory which he is about to reveal at his second coming. And trust the Theologian Gregory, who says: "Christ will come with his body, such as he appeared to the disciples on the mount, his divinity overcoming the flesh." ^C Well, therefore, did the Lord say that the just would shine like the sun at that time. For once they have received the radiance leaping forth from the Lordly body, they will then be transformed, and although they will be seen directly, they will be like some translucent body receiving the brightness of the sun. In this regard, the all-great Paul also said that the Savior will then transform the body of our lowliness, so that it might become conformed to the body of his glory; for this reason, it is not worthy to doubt these things. For if Adam from the very beginning, when he was fashioned by divine hands, received such brightness through the divine in-breathing, it is entirely evident that the man who rises from the dead will attain the same. ^D

^A tionen, on the descent from the sublime, and other things of that sort. But do not doubt further; for such a star was not one of the many which God set in the firmament at the beginning, but a certain invisible power, transformed into such an appearance, as John the gold-tongued says. For it was necessary that at such a paradoxical birth there should also be a paradoxical star as a messenger and proclaimer, as the most divine Cyril says. For if this were not so, it would not have shone to such an extent, nor would it have surpassed the solar rays at midday. If this were not so, it would not have persuaded the Magi to rise from there and undertake so great a journey, nor would it have led them so wondrously to Jerusalem, nor, having descended from on high, would it have stood above the child who was born, nor would it have disappeared after these things. For since, being led by it, they had approached Christ and had become firmly established in the unerring faith concerning Him, they no longer needed such a guiding hand. Hence it is that, having been warned in a dream, they departed by another way to their country.

Beside these things, my beloved, you bring forward the explanation of the Archbishop of Bulgaria into the middle, and from that you persist in arguing that the worship by the Magi occurred not in the cave itself, but in a certain house. For this divine man, as it seems, taking his starting point from the words of the Gospel according to Matthew, which speak of the Magi in this way: “And having entered the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother,” ^B says as much, that after the Lord was born and reclined in the manger, it was likely that a house was found in which to receive the worship from the Magi. And that person who was discussed seems clearly to say that the Magi did not see Christ in the cave in which the manger was. But he who has a tongue of gold, reconciling both the things said about the house and those about the manger itself, speaks thus: that when she had given birth, she immediately laid him down; for since many were gathering because of the registration, there was no house to be found. He brings forward also the most divine Luke, noting this and saying that because there was no place in the inn, she laid him in the manger, but after this she took him up and had him upon her knees. ^C But also in the sixth homily on the Gospel according to Matthew concerning the Magi, he says thus: “But what sign of a kingdom did they see at all, seeing a hut and a manger and a child in swaddling clothes and a poor mother?” And after a little: “But tell me, how did the star show such a narrow place of a manger and a hut, if it had not left the sublime, descended below, and stood above the head of the child itself?” And after these things: “Since therefore it led and gave guidance, and stood them by the manger, it no longer speaks to them through a star, but through an angel thenceforth.” And in the eighth homily, word for word, he says thus concerning the Magi: “But what is it that persuaded them to ^D offer [their gifts]?”

[ENGLISH SO FAR ENDS:] ^A be deemed worthy of brightness through the grace of the all-holy Spirit. And believe the blessed David, who speaks thus concerning this: "You shall send forth your Spirit, and they shall be created, and you shall renew the face of the earth." Observe, then. Since the Savior, when He was transfigured on the mount, showed in Himself what beauty Adam possessed from the beginning, and what beauty the just are soon to receive, for this reason the divine Gregory of Nyssa also said that they bear within themselves the divine image, both the man before the transgression and he who is to be resurrected from the dead hereafter.

That these things are so, and that the grace which is hoped for is a return to that first life, as we have often said, the Lord Himself showed before others. For when He embraced the prodigal son as he was returning, He said, among other things: "Clothe him with the first robe." Do not, therefore, doubt any further. For by calling it the "first" robe, He indicated clearly that the resurrection is nothing other than a restoration of the fallen into their ancient state.

EPISTLE IV

To the same. For what reason did the devil attack Adam through the serpent and not through any other of the animals, and from whence, finally, is it evident that he attacked Adam through the serpent, since Scripture does not say this clearly? And if there is truly a reason, why did Scripture completely conceal it?

Since you heard our Savior Jesus Christ saying in the Gospels, "A man's enemies will be those of his own household," and that, due to such creatures, kings and others are plotted against by men, it is not worth wondering so much, if the many-wiled dragon himself also made use of the serpent as an instrument to deceive the first man. For, according to the most divine Chry- ^{B C D}

^A For he says: “Quid tandem eis persuasit ut puerum summopere venerarentur? Nec enim Virgo speciem quamdam illustrem præ se ferebat, nec domus erat splendida.” And a little later: “Nihil istic magnum et insigne conspiciebatur, ex iis quidem rebus quæ sensu percipiebantur, sed tantum præsepe ac tugurium materque paupercula, ut nimirum hinc nudam Magorum philosophiam agnoscas.” Concerning all of which, you may observe that Chrysostom in that place, where the manger was contained, called it both a house, a tugurium, and a cave. Wherefore, let not your mind wander here and there, but pay heed rather to this golden orator, for he was a golden-beaten trumpet of the all-holy Spirit.

Christ, therefore, as it has been said, is born, and then is circumcised on the eighth day, and is brought into the temple after ^B 40 days. For scripture says: “And when the days of her ^C purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought him to Jerusalem” (Luke II, 22). And the law is of this sort: “If a woman shall conceive seed and bear a male child, she shall be unclean 40 days; but if she shall bear a female, 80 days” (Leviticus XII, 2-5). But why, I ask, and for what reason were these things instituted? And why was this period prescribed for the mother of a female doubled? Theodoret speaks in this manner regarding these things, explaining that this time of uncleanness was legislated of old for the sake of rest for women, who are burdened in the time of pregnancy; for through fear of uncleanness the law restrains husbands, and persuades them not to approach their wives at that time. And because a female offspring subjects the one bearing it to greater distress (for it is said that such a one stirs sooner in the womb than a male), for this reason the time of uncleanness was granted as twofold to those bearing females, as from this they obtained twofold rest. And such are the things of ^D Theodoret. The most divine Cyril, however, says that the male is shaped in 40 days, but the female requires 80 days for the emergence into human form. And because the male was brought to the temple for the sake of purification on the fortieth day, but the female on the eightieth, it appears entirely that such a formation stands in need of purification from God. And thus indeed the divine Fathers spoke concerning this; but the so-called *Leptogenesis*, by whomsoever it was written and how, says that after 40 days Adam entered into paradise, and Eve after 80, and for this reason both male and female are brought to the temple in such number of days, analogous perhaps to Adam and Eve. But leave it aside; for the true history of Moses shows that on the sixth day God formed Adam, and placed him straightaway in paradise; and likewise He forms Eve in paradise itself on the sixth day, having taken one of the ribs of Adam; for after the sixth day He created nothing.

^A If we believe that all men will rise again superior to corruption, answer me now: what is it that will compel them to take sensible food? But if man will live in the resurrection according to the likeness of the angels, as divine Gregory of Nyssa says (for he says, "And they shall all be as the angels of God"), how shall we say that he is in need of food and drink? This is impossible; absolutely impossible. For even if we use foods in the present time, it is because we have that very nature which compels us; but, as Nyssen says, man will then be freed from this ministry and will be disposed on an equal footing with the angels, just as the Lord said in the Gospels. But John Damascene also, in his hundredth chapter On the Resurrection, says word for word: "A natural body is sown, that is to say, dense and mortal; a spiritual body is raised, such as was the Lord's body after the resurrection, passing through closed doors, indefatigable, and devoid of the need for food, sleep, and drink. For man will then live in all things a life equal to the angels, according to him who says: 'And they shall all be as the angels of God.'"

And what need is there to say many words? If we are bound to have Christ himself before all things—those who are about to receive those good things "which eye has not seen, and ear has not heard, and which have not entered into the heart of man"—they will never be brought, as I think, to participate in any other kind of diet. That this blessedness is not sensible food, but rather the intelligible joy produced in the saints through sight, the Lord himself showed when he spoke thus: "Father, those whom you have given me, I desire that where I am, they also may be with me, that they may behold my glory." ^B Observe then: he did not say, "that they may partake," but "that they may behold my glory." He showed, therefore, from this, as the golden-tongued John says while expounding this divine utterance, that all this rest consists in looking upon the Son of God. For just as those who gaze upon the rays of the sun and enjoy themselves in the air have a most refined delight from the sight, so too will it be then. For an intelligible joy will be excited there in the saints through sight, as has been said. This doctrine is also established by the most divine John Damascene when he treats the subject of the immaculate mysteries of Christ, and says the following: "These holy mysteries are called the antitypes of those to come, not because ^C they are allegorically [untrue or mere symbols]..." ^D

[alt-version omitted]

Therefore, some theologians falsely maintain that the blessed in heaven will also enjoy tastes and drinks and delicacies of that kind; and hence the heresy of Cerinthus is excluded, as well as those of the Chiliasts, who affirm that men, after they have risen, will reign with Christ in this world, abounding in all delicacies and pleasures. Concerning whom, see Eusebius of Caesarea, *Ecclesiastical History*, Book III, chapter 28, and Book VII, chapter 25; and Augustine, *On the City of God*, Book XX, chapter 7, to omit the others.

Thus, the learned man Avicenna rightly explains the happiness of the just after death according to the views of Muhammad, placing it in the single contemplation of God, and interpreting that which he seems to suggest concerning sensible pleasures. See his work *On the Afterlife* (De Almahad).

^A God determined that this should be, for He was to be the reproach of the pious king and the refutation of his iniquity. The Lord, however, desiring him to live, did not allow such a thing, and it was brought about by divine care and providence that David’s life was prolonged.

The first book of Paralipomenon implies that all the psalms are David’s. Theodoret also testifies to this, saying that David first ordained that God should be celebrated by the work of Asaph and his brethren. According to the same Theodoret, David reigned for thirty years and passed away around the age of seventy. I am pleased in this place to add to these also the narrative of Josephus. It came to pass sometimes that David led his troops against the Philistines, and having pursued them for a long time, he was separated from all his own by a long interval. ^B Then a certain man from the enemies, born of the race of the Giants, seeing him alone and exhausted from labor and devoid of strength, hastened to kill him; and this would have happened, had not Abishai, the brother of Joab, come up and killed the enemy, thus saving David and restoring him safely. For this reason, the whole people bound themselves with an oath, that from then on he should not meet with them in battle. Again, the Philistines pitched their camp against the Hebrews. They had with them a man six cubits tall, who had many more fingers on each foot and each hand than nature provides; for he himself was of the race of the Giants. ^C A certain Jonathan, a Shimeathite, killed this man in single combat, and thus became the cause of victory. From that point on, the Philistines ceased to fight against the Hebrews. Upon which, receiving respite from his troubles, David began to praise God and compose sacred odes.

Knowing that David possessed many soldiers of invincible strength, yet five who were altogether exceptional. Among their number was one who killed six hundred enemies in a single day, and another who would not cease from leaping upon the enemies until he had killed nine hundred. They were so bold that three of them went to Bethlehem to bring water to David, who was then in Jerusalem, and they returned through the midst of the Philistines who were encamped outside the city, and, because of this remarkable boldness, dared to expose themselves to danger. ^D And David would not drink this water, but poured it out as a libation to God, and admired the virtue of the soldiers.

After these things, Solomon, having been designated by David, sat on the throne of the Lord to reign; that is to say, on the throne given to him by the Lord. We read in the first book of Paralipomenon, written by Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, that these chronicles contain the deeds done by David. One must know that he was the same as Orniam and Adonias, as he was called by those names. He, having invited Joab and Abiathar to a banquet, was anxiously meditating on seizing the kingdom. Then the prophet Nathan, learning of these plans of Berse-

and showed his hands to the disciples, doing the one according to nature—for it is the nature of a spiritual body to pass through solid things without hindrance—but the other according to ^A economy, so that they might believe that the body which had suffered had risen; thus it is shown.” These things therefore, as the aforementioned divine Fathers say, were so that the resurrection might be believed, and so that they might learn that it was he who had been crucified, and that no other than he had risen. Consistent with this, the Lord also said to the disciples: “See my hands, that it is I myself.” If these things are thus, it is by all means irrational for us, being persuaded by our own reasoning, to interpret the evangelical and divine sayings differently, if we have those very ^B men explaining such things by the Spirit. And why must one say much? Unless, according to the golden-tongued John, we say that the figures of the nails were shown by [divine] economy for the sake of the disciples, it is absolutely necessary that those rising from the dead—of whom Christ himself became the first-born—should rise at that time just as they had been consigned to the earth, whether they had some deformity or were otherwise bearing mutilated bodies. And the body of the Lord was not a spirit, as the trembling disciples supposed. For if it were this, he would not have eaten in their presence, the women would not have ^C kissed his feet, the Lord himself would not have said: “A spirit does not have flesh and bones, as you see me having.” Wherefore the body of the Lord was not a spirit, but it was nevertheless subtle and light and spiritual, as being guided by the all-holy Spirit. For if this were not so, he would not have appeared in different places in a single hour; nor would he who was seen and known yesterday be invisible and unknown today. For having become incorruptible, as has been said, he was not easily seen or known by corruptible eyes, but only when he himself altogether willed it, and as he himself permitted the disciples to behold him. And this is that which the evangelist ^D John said: “Jesus manifested himself to his disciples having risen from the dead.” For by saying “manifested,” he showed clearly that the disciples would not have seen him after the resurrection unless he had used a condescension, unless he were altered into another form. For in accordance with this also, the evangelical history says that he was seen by the disciples in another form. For he shows from this that a spiritual body is not seen by the eyes of flesh, unless it be altered paradoxically into another form. For it is altered according to the intention of the one using [it].

-^Aba (for he knew God's purpose and ordinance), informs David about the matter. David, however, not wishing to have Joab punished by his own hand—since he had endured many toils on his behalf—counsels his son Solomon not to despise his youth. He gives him the same advice regarding Semei, as a seditious man, whom he himself had nevertheless tolerated, even though he had been insulted by him many times. Solomon prevails, and at that time executes his brother Adonias. But the same also happens to Joab, although he had fled to the house of God. For divine law commands that a homicide who has fled to the temple be put to death.

Solomon, ^B having sacrificed a hecatomb at one time, supplicates God, and asks for wisdom and prudence. And the Lord appeared to him in a dream and said, “Ask what I shall give thee.” And he said, “Thou hast given unto Thy servant David my father, and I am a small youth, and I know not the going out and the coming in, and Thou shalt give to Thy servant a heart to hear and to judge Thy people in righteousness.” And the Lord said to him, “In that thou hast asked this thing from Me, and hast not asked for thyself many days, nor riches, nor the lives of thy enemies, but thou hast asked for thyself wisdom to hear judgment, behold, I have done according to thy word. Behold, I have given thee a heart wise and prudent, so that there has not been anyone like thee before thee, and after thee there shall not arise any like unto thee. And if thou walkest in My way, as David thy father, I will multiply thy days.” ^C After this, he builds a temple to God, and asks that His eyes be kept open over the divine house and that He hear them. And the Lord appeared to Solomon a second time, as He had appeared in Gabaon, and said, “I have heard the voice of thy prayer, and I have sanctified this temple which thou hast built, and My eyes shall be there and My heart all the days. And if thou turnest away from Me, I will remove Israel from this land, and I shall cast away this house which I have sanctified to My name, and I shall cast them out from My presence.” However, when Solomon was praying, fire came down from heaven and consumed the sacrifices which had been offered. Behold how great the piety of Solomon was beforehand, if fire was even brought down upon his sacrifices. And the stones of the temple were wrought without tools ^D (for they were found by divine providence in such a way that they needed no joining of iron, as Theodorus says), but he used stone-cutters for the trimming of the stones for the circuit of the temple. The length of the temple was sixty cubits, and the width twenty. Around the temple, chambers were built for the housing of the Levites and the storage of the vessels; for these were accessible only to the priests. The height of the temple was eighty cubits. Everything in the temple was overlaid with gold. All these things the grace of the Holy Spirit showed to David, and he to Solomon. He builds

^A And there is that which is in the brain, which is also called the animal [part], which through the nerves and muscles provides both sensation and movement of the whole body. For by such animal powers our entire life consists. That the animal body possesses such an expression and is constituted from thence in the way the preceding discourse indicated, is clear both from the things themselves and no less from the lawful commandments contained in the Gospel according to Mark: "For you shall love," he says, "the Lord your God with all your mind," etc. By saying heart, and soul, and mind, he indicated the different powers of the soul: the vital, which he revealed through the heart; the natural, which he signified through the soul; and the rational, which the discourse represented through the mind. For he exhorts one to love God through all the powers of the soul. ^B And now our body is enlivened in this way—wherefore it is also called animal; but then, delivered from all these things, as it has become incorruptible, it will be altogether spiritual, governed and ordered in an ineffable way by the all-holy Spirit. Hence also Paul said: "It is sown an animal body, it is raised a spiritual body." Take heed therefore: "It is sown an animal body," that is to say, dense and mortal; it is "raised a spiritual body," that is, thin and light and ethereal, and altogether freed from density and weight; but also [it is] governed by the Spirit alone, as the divine Isidore of Pelusium says. For now, even if the Holy Spirit is present with us, the soul possesses the authority of the actions; but then it [the body] will be such as to perform all things according to the laws of the Spirit; and this is what Paul meant when he said: "It is sown an animal body, it is raised a spiritual body." ^{C D}

^A three [such temples]. One of these was that which the blessed John mentioned, that is, a truly renowned woman and sister of Lazarus. The second, however, who had previously prostituted herself, approached Christ in the house of Simon the leper, as Matthew narrates. The third was also a harlot, as Luke indicates, who met Christ in the house of Simon the Pharisee, who was offended on that account and spoke to himself words of this sort: "If this man were a prophet, he would have known what kind of woman this is who touches him." I also know, beloved son, that some contend and assert that the transfiguration of our Lord Jesus Christ took place on that great Wednesday; but the argument on which they rely, to me at least, seems little to be probable. For if this miracle occurred on Mount Tabor, but the Lord was feasting in Jerusalem on that great Wednesday in the house of Simon the leper, it is manifest ^B that this miracle of the transfiguration occurred on some other day, and not on that Wednesday at all. For since there is an interval of about two days between Tabor and Jerusalem, how then will they say that Christ was found both on Tabor and in Jerusalem on one and the same day? He could, of course, as God, have caused Himself to be found here and there at the same time; but he did not wish to do this before the passion, so that the matter might not be thought to be something imaginary. Wherefore, according to the common nature of bodies, He was making His local transitions from one place to another.

After these things, He sends two of the disciples to a certain man for the sake of preparing the legal pascha, which He ate beforehand on the evening of the great Thursday, as John the gold-tongued says. ^C Then, reclining, He delivered His own pascha to the disciples through bread and wine, using these words: "Take, eat; this is my body," and "Drink all of you: this is my blood." And indeed, before the disciples, He Himself partook of His own body and blood. For what reason? So that the disciples might not be troubled again, as had happened before, when they heard Christ saying: "Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of man and drink his blood, you have no life in you." At that time, those who turned back from Him no longer walked with Him, saying that this word was hard, which no one could easily hear. Therefore, so that something of this kind might not happen to them again, as they were about to eat flesh and drink blood, He first tasted His own flesh, wishing that they too should be filled with these things without any hesitation. And the Savior prepares this supper for the consolation of the disciples; for He saw them to be not a little fearful and broken in spirit because of His departure from them. ^D Therefore, as has been said, He communicates His own body and blood with them, adding these words: "Do this in remembrance of me." Judas also partakes besides the others, and then goes away to the Jews, revealing to them the things done by the Lord.

^A And the Evangelist, indicating this, said that even he, having taken the morsel, went out; and it was night. He goes, therefore, to those with whom he had agreed to deliver up the Lord. And the Lord, indeed, arranges the final things for his disciples; then thus he comes to a place that the betrayer also knew, who immediately, having taken the band of soldiers and ministers from the chief priests and Pharisees, comes there with lanterns and torches. Then he questions them; they fall to the ground. Peter cuts off the ear of Malchus, though he was not able to cut off his head; for this was what he was striving to do. Then, truly then, the Lord said to him: "Dost thou think that I cannot now beseech my Father, and he shall present to me more than twelve legions of angels? How then may the Scriptures be fulfilled, that thus it must be?" These things the Savior said to the disciples, striking fear into them and persuading them from then on not to busy themselves with any of the things happening. For if to the Scriptures, he says, this seems good—that is, for me to suffer—how do you oppose, using swords? The cup which the Father has given me, shall I not drink it? ^B Having, therefore, bound Jesus, they led him away to Annas first, and there he is judged. He is questioned regarding his teaching and his disciples. He answers as is fitting. He receives a blow, and says: "If I have spoken evil, and so on." Thence, therefore, he is led to Caiaphas, then to Pilate when it is morning; before the cock crows he is led to Caiaphas, but in the morning to Pilate. The Evangelist shows that during the entire half of the night he was interrogated by Caiaphas and was convicted of nothing, and for this reason he sent him on to Pilate. And indeed Mark, recounting the matter regarding the cock-crowing, says thus: "Before the cock crow twice, thou shalt deny me thrice" (for when he had denied once, the cock crowed the first time, but when he had denied the third time, it crowed the second), explaining more accurately the weakness of Peter, having learned from the teacher himself, for he was also a student of his. But Matthew, having said that "Before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice," indicated the whole cock-crowing, that is, the first, which occurs through various utterances, just as the second cock-crowing does, and the third. Therefore, in having said "Before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice," Matthew seemed to say, as it were, that even before the first cock-crowing arrives, thou shalt deny me three times. However, after the Lord is judged by Pilate, his back is scourged with braided thongs; for such, in fact, is what the whip is. Then, thus, he is delivered up to be crucified. And all these things have been done by the untimely cowardice of Pilate; for [he wished to appease the Jews regarding the things of which they accused him, showing him to be a rebel, to...]

have him crucified, having first scourged him with lashes. For this reason, Pilate is also worthy of punishment, because, although he was able to release him (for he says: "I have power to release you, and I have power to crucify you"), he did not do so, fearing the Jews, and especially those crying out: "If you release this man, you are no friend of Caesar." Consequently, he is condemned; and this is made clear by what the Lord said to him: "He who delivered me to you has the greater sin."

However, the evangelist John, while demonstrating the time when Pilate sat in the place called the Pavement ^A in order to judge the matters concerning Jesus, said: "It was the preparation of the Passover, and it was about the sixth hour." But why is the sixth day of the week called the preparation of the Passover by the evangelist John? The reason is clearly set before you. Just as the Sabbath is the seventh day of the week, yet is called Sabbath—that is, rest—because of the rest that occurred on it from all works (for then the servant, the beast of burden, and all others rest), so the preparation is indeed the sixth day of the week, but it is called "preparation" because on it the Jews prepare and, so to speak, make ready those things for the Sabbath. For on that day, they are not permitted to light a fire, nor collect wood, nor even simply prepare food. So, ^B because the sixth day makes these preparations by the evening, it has been named "Preparation." Therefore, the evangelist John, calling such a day the "preparation of the Passover," clearly showed that at that time the Jews were preparing for the first feast of the Passover according to the ordinance of the Law. For from the sixth hour of the fourteenth day of the moon, all leavened bread was destroyed by fire, and they prepared the unleavened bread according to custom. If these things are so, it is clearly evident that that which was given by Christ through bread and wine on the evening of Great Thursday was leavened, because the time for unleavened bread had not yet arrived then, contrary to the common opinion of the many. Therefore, dismiss the words of the many, and attend to the sequence ^C of the sacred oracles. That the lamb was to be sacrificed on the day of the Preparation, not on Great Thursday, is evident from many other things, and not least from what we are about to mention. They were accustomed to call that day, on the evening of which the Passover was sacrificed, both "day of unleavened bread" and "Passover" alike, definitively from its evening. For because the lamb was sacrificed and the unleavened bread was eaten on the evening of the fourteenth, for this reason this fourteenth day was called both "Passover" and "day of unleavened bread." And we find that these names had also been given to the Great Preparation. And attend, if you will, to what is said. The first of the unleavened bread is called the...

Great Thursday, as being before the unleavened bread. For just as Mark calls the Preparation "the day before the Sabbath," as being before the Sabbath, so too does Matthew call the Great Thursday "the first of the unleavened bread," as being before the unleavened bread, as the golden-tongued one says: "He clearly indicated the Great Preparation." Likewise, Luke also, in saying that the day of the unleavened bread had come—that is, had approached—hinted at the same things as Matthew. Moreover, John also, by saying that the supper took place before the feast of the Passover, called the Preparation itself by that name, and the things that follow clarify this; for he says: "And they themselves did not enter, so that they might not be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover," and again, "It is a custom for you that I should release one to you at the Passover," that is, the one now imminent. Furthermore, indicating the time when Pilate sat in a place called the Pavement, he says thus: "And it was the Preparation of the Passover, and it was about the sixth hour." And proceeding further, "For that day of the Sabbath was a great day." He would not have called it great in any other way unless that first day of the unleavened bread—which is also called holy by the Law—had fallen upon that Sabbath. All these things clearly suggest that, by agreement, the Passover was slaughtered on the evening of that Preparation. For this reason, he called it the Preparation of the Passover, as preparing those things for the Passover that was truly imminent. Therefore, without any argument, it appears that the Passover took place on the evening of the Preparation. For if this were not the case, the evangelist John would not have said, "And they themselves did not enter the praetorium so that they might not be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover." ^B And attend, if you wish, to the great Cyril, who, before others, seals such things, saying that while they were honoring the type—that is, the lamb—and on this account were not choosing to enter the praetorium, they were insulting the Truth himself, Christ; for they were intending to sacrifice the Passover according to the Law, which had no power among them. If these things are so, they are clearly speaking in vain who say that the typical lamb is eaten on the evening of Great Thursday; for in competing to establish the unleavened bread, they attempt to maliciously corrupt the truth. And do not oppose me with John Chrysostom, in his eighty-fourth homily on Matthew, who says that the Jews, having unexpectedly seized Christ, also chose to overlook the feast of the Passover then falling at that time. For you have him in his interpretation of the [Gospel] according to John, when it is said: "And they themselves did not enter, so that they might not be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover," completely nullifying such a conjecture. Hence it is that we refrain from inquiring into the things of the divine man when he is even more contradictory to himself, having no strength; we judge that such things ought to be honored in silence, especially if it is more reasonable to hold to the later [statements], because these appear to be in harmony with the explanations of the other Fathers. For he says that Christ ate the Passover one day early,

deferring his own slaughter to the day of Preparation, when the legal Passover was wont to be slaughtered. That the bread which the Lord gave to the apostles at the supper was leavened bread, not unleavened, as those [others] assert, this most divine man clearly indicates to you. For, speaking concerning the Old and New Covenants, ^A he says: "There was the letter; here is the spirit. There was the ark; here is the Virgin. There was Aaron’s rod; here is the Cross. There was the lamb; here is Christ. There were the unleavened loaves; here is the bread." These things have been written down for you in summary, as you see; for the time does not permit us to dwell longer on discussions concerning these matters. Next, our Lord Jesus Christ is delivered up to be crucified; and see what things followed. For from the sixth hour, darkness covered the whole earth until the ninth hour, God being indignant, as is to be supposed, at the things which were being dared. For that it was not an eclipse, as Chrysostom says, but rather wrath and divine indignation, is clear even from the time itself; for the darkness lasted for three hours, whereas an eclipse happens in a single moment of time. Such is the argument of Chrysostom. That divine man, ^B Dionysius the Areopagite, however, does not speak simply so, but reports that the universal darkness happened in a new and unusual manner by the opposition of the lunar body obstructing the sun. For writing to the hierarch Polycarp concerning the fact that the sophist Apollophanes did not accept the Christian religion, he sets forth these words: "Say to him—to Apollophanes—‘What do you think of that eclipse which happened at the time of the saving passion? For we both were in Heliopolis at that time, and standing together, we saw the moon in an unusual manner falling upon the sun; for it was not the time of their conjunction. And then again we saw it from the ninth hour until the evening, in a supernatural manner, having moved to the diameter of the sun.’" And he himself was so struck with fear at the time that he turned to me and said: "These, Dionysius, are the vicissitudes of divine things." In this manner does Dionysius speak of this. The prophet Zechariah speaks in a wonderful way ^C of that same darkness which occurred at the time of the saving passion. He says: "In that day there shall be no light (namely, when Christ shall be crucified), but there shall be cold and frost for one day, and that day shall be known to the Lord." For God has advance knowledge of all things. It shall not be a day, nor yet a night. For it could not properly be called a day because of that three-hour darkness, nor truly night because of the light which existed until the sixth hour and returned after the ninth. The prophet, signifying this, said, "And towards evening there shall be light." These things, my beloved, not only did the prophets foretell, but they are found also in many Greek commentaries; for even a great earthquake...

is said to have occurred at that time, and such darkness that the stars appeared. Then, truly then, he also brings forth the prophetic word on the cross which says: ^A "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" He said these things in Hebrew: *Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani*. For what reason? So that these things might be clear even to the Jews. But those men, being so licentious and shameless, as the man of golden tongue says, thought he was calling Elijah. And these were thus. But that voice also tore the veil and opened the tombs. Yet those foolish men, even seeing such things, did not want to understand at all. Rather, they were saying, "Let him come down from the cross, that we may see and believe." But he, remaining on the cross, as the Golden-mouthed says, showed this abundantly in the bodies of his servants; for if it was a great thing for Lazarus, who had been dead four days, to come out, ^B it was far greater for many of those who had fallen asleep long ago to appear alive all at once. And pay close attention to the most divine Matthew speaking about these things: "And many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised, and they entered the holy city and appeared to many after his resurrection." But here it is worth your attention. For if, according to John of the Golden mouth, these bodies were raised while Christ was still on the cross, how does the evangelist record that they appeared after Christ's resurrection? I fear lest "his" ought to be read instead of "their"; for those bodies, after their resurrection from the dead, entered the holy city and appeared to many. Then, truly then, that prophetic utterance also received fulfillment which says to those in bonds, "Come forth," ^C and to those in darkness, "Be revealed." And according to the sixth hour, as the Scriptures say, the Lord is crucified, but according to the ninth he entrusts his spirit into the Father's hands. But if you also hear of his holy soul descending to Hades, do not marvel at this, nor say that it is impossible for it both to have descended to Hades and to have been entrusted into the Father's hands. For the hand of God, that is, the power holding all things, is both above in heaven and below on earth, and never ceases from the recesses of Hades. So that even if the holy soul of Christ was descending to Hades at that time, yet it was not separated from the power that holds all things, as we have said; rather, the power of the Father is Christ himself, as Paul says. He therefore entrusts his soul to the Father's hands, so that from this ^D and to all

the souls of the just, the journey to the regions above and to the heavens might be granted: for he did not die in vain and without purpose for us. He descends, however, to Hades, so that he might preach to those who were detained there as well, and instruct and demonstrate that religious piety of which they had previously been ignorant. Have faith in this matter in that chief, Peter, who discourses on these things in the following manner: "He went and preached also to the spirits that were in prison, which sometime were disobedient." Following these words, Gregory the Theologian reflects upon this matter as follows: "Did the Lord, having manifested himself in Hades, save all, or only those who had believed?" Do not, I say, doubt this. For just as he announced a message of peace to men living upon the earth, and to those who believed he became the author of salvation, while to the disobedient he was proof of their own incredulity, as John Damascene speaks, so also did he deal with those who were in Hades. Nor, beloved son, should it seem a marvel to you if some souls held in Hades did not admit the preaching of Christ. For just as we see that when God caused the foundations of the prison to be shaken for Paul's sake, the jailer himself immediately embraced the faith, while the other captives persisted in their incredulity, even though they saw their own iron fetters suddenly broken and torn apart, so you must believe it happened with those who were held in Hades. ^B But if you also wish to know the reason why the Savior preached even to the souls who were in Hades, know that it is this. The Savior assumed our nature in the year 5500 from the creation of the world. Why at that time? Because at that time that which was to serve the mystery of Christ was brought to light, as the great Basil says. For the disease of vice, as that divine Gregory of Nyssa speaks, which had invaded human nature from the beginning, had already lost its strength. For the Gentiles were then about to believe through the call, as that great Paul also signifies with these words: "When the fullness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son." Rightly, therefore, in the year already indicated, the Lord assumed flesh, because it was altogether appropriate and convenient for this purpose. But since some of those who had closed their lives in ignorance of piety were endowed with such excellent souls that, had they been called, they would surely have approached and embraced the Gospel concerning Christ, if indeed they had seen him dwelling on earth with the flesh in previous ages, for this reason he does not refuse to descend even to Hades and to preach to the souls detained there, so that in this way no place for excusing themselves would remain for anyone, nor would the good lose their own goodness, nor could the wicked reply with words of this kind: "If we had seen, we would surely have believed." Let these things be said concerning these matters.

^A It was necessary that they take part in the blessing. That the life of man was angelic and equal to the angels, this is shown more clearly from whence the nature is found at the point where marriage finds its origin. Since, therefore, the construction of Eve was urgent, as has been said before, God anticipated it and made her even before Adam fell. For after his fall, there was no longer a time for creation, but rather one of curse and anger, pain and grief, sweat of the brow, a life of suffering, the donning of garments of skin, and a turning back to the earth. At such a time, therefore, to remove a rib, to build Eve, and to bless them, was, as I suppose, unacceptable and entirely improper. For that was not a time for blessing, but for anger, for a curse, for turning away, and for death. "For earth," he says, "you are, and to earth you shall depart." Why then, even before Adam fell, did He bring Eve forth from his rib? By way of indulgence, absolutely, as was said before. For if this were not the case, the great Paul would not have said, "It is good not to touch a woman." And why is it necessary to say much, that He brought forth the female, if he would not later, through Paul, advise not to touch a woman? He who brought her forth from the beginning was the one speaking in Paul, and if he did not bring forth the female at that time by way of concession, he shows from this that before the production of the female there was another type of noble life that was equal to the angels. For according to this, he also drew upon it elsewhere, saying, "Let him who is able to receive it, receive it." ^B That these things are so, and that before the production of the female there was a lofty and angelic state, the expectation of that state makes manifest. And do not marvel on account of this. For if the Lord promises celibacy in the life to come—"For they shall be," he says, "all as the angels of God"—and for this reason the Nyssen says it is a return to that ancient and first life, what needs to be said regarding the first Adam and his way of life other than that he was equal in honor to the angels, and that he lived an angelic life, just as has been said before? Pay attention, therefore. For the condition of that Adam clearly presents what the expected grace is, inasmuch as it is a return to that first state, as has already been said. For even if we are bound by the law of marriage today, yet this law was not given from the very beginning, but by way of indulgence later, because of the fall from perfection, on account of which one is also deprived of crowns, as the golden-tongued one says. If, therefore, as has been said, the female herself was brought forth by way of indulgence, and marriage was given, it is entirely necessary that these all pass away at some point, ^C and that there be found then two such persons, who will be raised from the dead, such as that first Adam was, as the great Athanasius says to Antiochus. But the most divine Anastasius is also found speaking of these things thus: "We shall then put aside everything foreign that has entered into us because of sin." If, however, these things are so regarding the female herself, what is there to say? If for this reason [the female was produced]...

^A resurrection was such that, if it had occurred secretly, the thing would have been suspicious; therefore Pilate allowed the tomb to be sealed as they wished. Since these things are so, do not search too curiously into the divine words, nor seek three days and three nights in the burial of Christ and our Savior, especially when you have the most divine Isidore measuring out this interval for you. The Lord was crucified at the sixth hour of Friday. From this hour until the ninth hour, darkness occurred: consider this as a night for me. Again, from the ninth hour until evening, there was light: consider this again as a day. Behold, you have a day-night ^B interval. Again, the night of Friday and the day of Saturday constitute a day-night interval; behold, you have two day-night intervals. Again, the night of Saturday and the dawn of Sunday make a day-night interval; behold, you have a third day-night interval, in which the Lord also rose, although the hour of the resurrection was unclear, just as the hour of his second coming will also be.

I remember, beloved son, that among other things you also inquired about this: for what reason the burial of the Lord was for three days, and not for a longer or shorter ^C interval. It was fitting that Christ should die for the entire nature of humanity, that is to say, for those who had already died before, for those still living, and for those who were to be born in the future, since there are also three times: past, present, and future. He saved those who had already died by descending into Hades; he saved those living at that time as having believed in him; and those who were to come after, as having believed in the preaching of the apostles and having been baptized. If, therefore, he took our whole nature, it is clear that he also refashioned our whole nature. ^D Thus, the burial of the Lord was properly for three days.

The Lord rises from the dead, therefore, but he is not immediately taken up to the heavens. For according to the opinion of the great Athanasius, the Lord spent forty days on earth because he wished to confirm the disciples. For this reason, he manifested himself to them at times and conversed with them in peace, showing the scars in that divine body, eating and drinking with them—not as one in need of food, but to provide proof—and doing all the other things that were accustomed to strengthen those who were weak. First of all, he was seen by two women, at which time they held his feet and embraced them. Then he appears to the Magdalene alone; after this to the chief, Peter, just as Paul also says: "The Lord, having been raised from the dead, was seen first by Cephas." He was seen by those with Luke and Cleopas, he was seen by the ten, then by the eleven; he was seen by them in Galilee, likewise

^A Abraham the rich man; for if he did not know him, how could he have called him by name? No one, I think, will consider this impossible. Is it not possible for this child, and this woman, and that old man, to recognize each other then, even if they rise with one age and one figure? For here there is no recognition from signs and figures and ages; but with the insightful eye of the soul we shall all recognize all, as it pleased our Maker and Creator. This very thing the most divine Anastasius sets before you more clearly, and thus he says: "And there will not be recognition then from signs." Nor do these generative parts represent the female and the male, because neither is there male and female in Christ, as Paul says. If then these things are so, and according to great Athanasius we all rise as one man in the regeneration—for there is one age among all, one creation, one form, one figure and size—it would be superfluous to seek a difference in figures; for if corruption introduced such a difference, it is absolutely necessary, now that incorruption has come, for all these things to pass away along with corruption. And thus indeed [thinks] Athanasius, who is truly wise in divine matters: that the difference of figures and the beginning of marriage were on account of sin; for in the beginning there was no such thing, since the multiplication of human beings was intended to be as the angels, as has been said before; and from this there was no need of help from the female; and indeed if Adam had not been seen as disobedient, there would have been no need of marriage, and of the construction that subsequently serves for marriage. For to what purpose would it have served, if it was not forbidden for [the human race] to advance [in numbers] without it?

The discourse has previously discussed this for you ^B more clearly. But if these things are so, if marriage had its beginning on account of disobedience and the corruption that comes from death, as he of the golden tongue says; if after the height of creation God brought upon man the property of irrational construction, as he of Nyssa says; if the difference of figures is of the second creation, according to the divine Sinaite Anastasius; if all rise according to that first man in one form and one figure, as the great Athanasius says, seeing that the difference according to male and female was later fashioned by God for a reason which has been discussed above—what must one say in regard to the proposed question? ^C These things we ask to learn.

If John Damascene also seems to counter the things that have been said. For in the forty-fourth of his Dogmatic Chapters, he is found saying these things concerning the first man: "God, however, fashioned this man male, having imparted to him His own divine grace, and furthermore also rule over all earthly things." From this, therefore, he seems to be in opposition; for by saying that that first man was fashioned by God as male, he has placed before us no minor difficulty. For if, as the great Athanasius says, we shall all rise as one in the regeneration, that is to say, similar to the first man in figure and creation; [and if] he is male...

toward Tiberias; he was seen by James, the brother of God; he was seen above five hundred men. And lastly, he appeared to them on the Mount of Olives, in which place he also made his ascent from the earth after the fortieth day, as has been said. If you wish to learn why he spent these forty days on earth after his resurrection from the dead, and not more or fewer, behold, the great Epiphanius shall resolve such a mystery for you in few words: "For in the same way," he says, "that after his birth Christ was laid in a manger, wrapped in swaddling clothes, and after forty days was brought into the divine temple and presented to God according to the law of Moses, so too, having become the firstborn from the dead, he remains on earth for forty days, and then returns to the Jerusalem above, to appear before the face of God on our behalf." And be persuaded by the great Paul, who says: "For Christ did not enter into sanctuaries made by hands, which are copies of the true ones, but into heaven itself, now to appear before the face of God on our behalf."

^B Consequently, the Lord was taken up. Ten days pass after this, and the descent of the all-holy Spirit occurs. This descent occurs after the completion of ten days, because the number ten is perfect. Since, therefore, the Holy Spirit was descending for this purpose—that he might make the imperfect disciples perfect—on that account he came upon them in a perfect number, that is, on the tenth day. That he made the imperfect disciples perfect, the chief, Peter, demonstrated. For look mindfully at how previously, having been thrown into confusion by a wretched servant girl, he denied his teacher three times; but later, having been sharpened by the all-holy Spirit, he harangued with great boldness in the midst of the people, and from there he persuaded everyone to come to Christ without hesitation.

After fifty days, then, as has been said, from the resurrection of Christ from the dead, the descent of the all-holy Spirit occurs. For what reason? Because the old law also was given on the fiftieth day after the manifestation of God. For according to the golden-tongued and divine John, or rather according to the history of the God-seer Moses, fifty days passed after the exodus of the Jews from Egypt, and at that time Moses received the God-inscribed tablets. If, therefore, the old law was given within fifty days, it was entirely necessary for the grace of the all-holy Spirit to be given on that same day, so that from this, beloved, according to both the Old and the New Covenants, the nature of the Godhead might be shown to be indivisible, and that the Holy Spirit was the lawgiver both then and now. "And there appeared to them tongues parting asunder, as of fire." Why tongues? Because there was need of preaching, and so that by his preaching, the world might be saved.

^A by God, as that man wise in divine things, John, says: what need is there to speak further on these points? For if all shall rise in a male figure, or if all according to some other figure, as God who fashioned us knows—even if he does further assert that there is neither male nor female there, because the figure is the same—otherwise, if the first man possessed the difference according to the male [sex] as innate to his existence, it was then possible to see the female immediately coexisting with him. For the male was made because of the female, and the female because of the male, of necessity, and the all-encompassing kinds of living creatures make this manifest. For none of them emerged from the earth without union; for their copulation was necessary for the succession of the race, because He did not desire that these should be multiplied like the angels.

But these things require a more elevated mind, in order for them to be reconciled with one another; but as for us, we are not only at a loss regarding these matters, but also in those where man himself, by coming down to his own level, appears to be contradicting himself. For he has already ^B beforehand stated that the first man was produced by God as a male, that he was considered worthy of divine grace, and that he was entrusted with the lordship of earthly things; but after these things, he has added these words verbatim: "But God, the foreknower, knowing that he would fall into transgression and that he would be subjected to corruption, brought forth the female from him as a helper for him according to him, for the sake of the constitution of the race by succession." For this reason we have doubted not a little. For it appears that, if he were not to have been subjected to corruption, He would not have brought forth the female from him. But if He had not brought her forth, how would the multiplication of men have taken place? But [it would have occurred] like the angels, without union, as the Nyssene says. And for what reason he says that Adam was produced at the beginning in the figure of the male, we desire to learn these things. For the divine [author] from this point ^C appears to be contradicting both the aforementioned Fathers and even more so himself, unless we say that the Saint took the word "male" here according to another meaning; for this word signifies sometimes also the active, the strong, and the perfect, as the etymology of such a word shows. For, producing him such from the beginning, God made him a participant in His own divinity and entrusted to him the lordship of all earthly things.

Pay attention, therefore. For if our generation today is animal, yet sin has become the cause of this. And if it does not burden your ears, I shall take up this discourse again a little. For God fashioned man, He placed him in paradise, and there was neither any reason for marriage in his case, nor did he need the helper of the female. For even if God, while fashioning him, saw how great the human race would be according to number, yet according to that first one, if he had not been found disobedient, all would have been produced without union; for if God was not ignorant of the future, yet He desired ^D to show what His intention was for man beforehand. For it was for this reason that He produced him alone, and honored him with immortality. According to that first one, therefore, if he had remained obedient, all the human race was to have been produced.

and so that the form might interpret the function, as that golden-mouthed one says of the tongue. For the apostles were fishermen, and they had need of the word for their preaching. And he said "parting," because the fire appeared descending [in a] uniform [manner], then was divided and distributed among the apostles. And that fire was not the Spirit himself, but a power of the Spirit. But these tongues were not cast into their mouths, but sat upon their heads; for they were being ordained as rulers and heralds of the world. For see that this custom prevails even until now; for the Gospel is placed upon the head of the one about to be ordained as high priest, and when it is placed there, there is nothing else to be seen but a tongue resting upon the head. And it appeared in the form of fire because of Him who said: "I came to cast fire upon the earth" for the sake of the passions that were growing wild like a forest.

^B And it sat upon each one of them. Therefore everyone who serves God is a throne of God; for it is for this reason that he said "it sat." And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and began to speak in other tongues, as the Spirit was giving them the power to speak. Upon which also those standing by said: "Are not all these who are speaking Galileans? And how do we hear each in our own dialect, Parthians and Medes and Elamites and the rest?" And they received the gifts of fifteen tongues for the time being, as the one who is golden of tongue says, as far as those present were concerned. For what was the need of the Persian tongue when no Persians were present? And fifteen tongues appeared for this reason too, so that the activity of the Trinity might be shown, and the twelve [apostles] as ministers. And it was possible to see the Galilean Peter speaking in the Roman tongue, a language he had not learned, just as it was possible to see each one of the others speaking in a peculiar tongue. For the Holy Spirit ordains this, so that there might not be contention among the apostles about where each ought to go. Upon which also to each one a particular tongue is given as a rule. That is, do you speak in the Roman tongue? Go away to Rome. Do you speak Persian? ^C Go away to Persia. And in one tongue, as has been said, they received the rule; but since it was necessary for them, as they departed to Rome, to pass through many nations, they received other tongues as auxiliaries, having the first [one] in place of an ordination. For every one of the apostles is found speaking in diverse tongues, since they were passing also through many nations. This is clear from what Paul says: "I thank God that I speak in the tongues of you all." Then, indeed, then the prophecy of the most divine Joel was receiving its fulfillment, which says thus: "I will pour out of my Spirit upon all flesh," that is, upon that which has believed. For not only did the apostles receive [the gift of] tongues...

^A Hence, therefore, the teachers of the Church, having seized upon this occasion, confirmed the dogma concerning that recognition alongside others. For if here men recognize one another by means of signs, since the perspicacious eye of our soul has been darkened by sin and is unable to see as it did before, but there it is without signs—for there is one age among all, and one form, as the Scriptures say ^B—all will recognize all, as the discourse will shortly demonstrate to you. For if here all had one and the same character, no small confusion would occur in this life. For what reason? Because our mind does not currently possess the power of discernment in a healthy state, as it did formerly. Divine providence, therefore, aiding our infirmities, has permitted the variation of bodies to exist among us by dispensation, ^C so that all might thereby be recognized by one another. But there, O godlike man, there is nothing of the kind. And if you wish, hear first from John of the Golden Speech, who confirms and says these things regarding this matter: that we shall recognize not only those known to us here, but also those we have never seen. For you have not seen Abraham, nor Isaac, nor the other ancient fathers; but seeing them at that fearful ^D and common assembly, you will recognize them, and having recognized them, you will say: "Behold Abraham, behold Isaac, behold Jacob, behold Peter and Paul, and the rest in order." And for this reason, do not wonder, nor consider it something strange. For if those bodies which rose from the dead at the time of the Savior’s passion, being a prefiguration of the last and common resurrection, entered into the holy city and appeared to many—that is, were recognized (for had they not been destined to be recognized, they would not have appeared, but since they appeared, they were nevertheless known)—and [this happened] even among those who had no prior knowledge of those seen; for none of those who were present at that time, as the golden-mouthed one is found saying in his eighty-eighth homily on the holy Gospel according to Matthew, recognized the sight of the righteous who had long since fallen asleep—much more will such a recognition occur at that true and final resurrection. For when this thick flesh has become thin and light, and patriarchal, the perspicacious eye of our soul will not be hindered in the clearest way. And let that first Adam persuade you; ^A for having become awake and seeing that Eve, he recognized her, and having recognized her, he said: "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh." Do not, therefore, disbelieve what is said; for when we come to that Adam—for the resurrection is nothing else than a restoration to the ancient state of those who have fallen—we shall of necessity recognize even those whom we have never seen, O brethren; for we are one body, and all have one head: Christ. Of necessity, therefore, we shall all recognize all. For even if we were born at different times, yet of all there is one Father, God. Wherefore it is fitting that all from the beginning unto the end should gather together at the same time, and be carried forth collectively in that patriarchal joy. For on this account also, those who received the promise, according to the great Paul, shall not [apart from us be perfected].

not only spoke in foreign tongues, but also all ^A who were baptized by them received a like gift. And this is just what the Lord said: "And these signs shall follow them that believe: In my name shall they cast out devils; they shall speak with new tongues." And see what happened to those twelve men in Ephesus, as Luke relates, who, having been baptized into the baptism of John, said they did not even know what the Spirit was; but when Paul laid his hands upon them, then they received the gift of tongues. For because the Holy Spirit was invisible, it was altogether necessary that there should be some sensible proof of His presence, so that from this point on all might come to the divine laver without hesitation. This gift, however, stirred Simon also to approach the apostles and ask for baptism; for had he not seen the power of the Spirit as something sensible, he would not have approached the disciples of Christ, nor would he have appeared so needy of their work. And at that time those who were baptized received the gift of tongues by the outpouring of the all-holy Spirit; but upon those with Cornelius, ^B the Holy Spirit fell even before they were baptized, and they spoke in tongues. But why, I ask, did they receive the efficacy of the all-holy Spirit even before they were baptized? Because of the great prejudice of those who had believed from among the circumcision. For these were divided, not wishing to mingle with the Gentiles who were being baptized.

I know, however, beloved, that you also desire to learn the time at which the calling of the blessed Paul took place. And according to certain historians, and especially Hippolytus the Theban, seven years had passed after the resurrection of the Lord from the dead when Stephen, the first martyr, received his blessed end; and after this, about six months passed, and the calling of Paul occurred. But the History of Eusebius Pamphili relates that not even one year had been completed after the resurrection of the Lord from the dead, when all these things took place, both the struggles of the first martyr and the approach of the blessed Paul. But one could have seen fulfilled in him at that time the saying which declares: "Where you are going, you know; but what you are about to suffer, you do not know." For having received letters from the chief priests in order to go and slay the Christians found anywhere, he is blinded ^C in his eyes along the way; for an ineffable light from above flashed around him, and thus the lamps of his body were immediately extinguished. But he also heard a voice from above saying to him: "Saul, Saul" (that is, brother, brother, why do you persecute me?). He is then sent to Ananias and receives baptism, and thence he is enlightened in his psychic and bodily eyes. The all-great Paul then preaches for 35 years. For in the eighteenth year of Tiberius Caesar the saving passion of Christ took place.

^A know one another, when there is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither Scythian nor barbarian, neither small nor great, neither male and female, neither black nor fair, neither slave nor free; but all are like the angels?’ It is entirely impossible for such as these to know or be known. And such indeed is what they think and say. But we, opposing them, say this: Those who abandon themselves to human reasonings and on this account contend that we shall not recognize one another there, will end by rejecting the very resurrection of the dead from their bodies. And this is not so surprising as it might seem to them; for a body that has flowed away, a body that has perhaps been devoured by a beast, or fish, or bird, how shall it be gathered into one again and rise? And how shall it, having been so dispersed, return to its former state? But leave, if you wish, those who pry into such things; for being "natural" (psychical) men themselves, according to the apostle Paul—if indeed one must call such a great person [by that name]—they do not receive the things of the Spirit. Leave them, if such is their mindset.

I say, then, that [the claim] that we shall not recognize one another there is destructive of the future judgment itself, as the aforementioned divine man said. For judgment is accustomed to take place with the persons being known, just as it is written: “I will convict thee, and set thy sins before thy face” (Ps. XLIX, 21). So that if we do not recognize one another, we shall not be judged; and not being judged, we shall not receive what is worthy of how we have lived. How, moreover, shall the apostles sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel, ^C if they do not recognize those whom they judge? And how shall the blessed Job receive twice as many children again, if he does not recognize them in the kingdom of heaven? Since the former he received here, but the latter he had been promised he would receive in the age to come. Therefore, brethren, believing, we shall believe that we shall both rise and recognize one another as we were, but in the beauties of incorruptibility, just as it has been said before. For our first parents in paradise, even before the transgression, recognized one another when they were incorrupt, and after the transgression, when they were subject to corruption, they recognized one another likewise. Whence it must be believed that brother will recognize brother, and father child, and wife husband, and friend friend. I would add also that the ascetic will recognize the ascetic, the confessor the confessor, the martyr his fellow-contender, the apostle his fellow-apostle, and all will recognize all, so that the dwelling of all may be in God, who along with all blessings grants also the recognition of one another.

But also, as he was making his arrangements at the time when this divine man was departing [this life], he said these things word for word: “If I attain salvation, I will not cease to pray to the Lord boldly for all of you, expecting to see, receive, and embrace you one by one through the departure from the world; for I have such confidence, that His goodness will keep us all together in the age to come, just as here, if we have kept His commandments.” ^D

That we shall all recognize all, and not just the righteous those who are righteous, as some think, and in their own

^A This eighteenth year had not yet been completed when the aforementioned events occurred. The nineteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar began to run its course, and Paul began his preaching, as history relates. Thus the four remaining years of the reign of Tiberius pass; for he is found to have held power for twenty-two years in total. The four years of the reign of Gaius pass by similarly, and likewise, the roughly fourteen years of Claudius pass by. Nero succeeds this man, and in the thirteenth year of his reign, he kills the Apostle. Consequently, thirty-five years are found during which Paul preached. And he carried out his ministry so diligently that he even went to see James the brother of the Lord and received counsel from him regarding the need to shear himself and purify himself on account of the Jews.

^C This James served as the first high priest of Jerusalem; for they chose him so that Peter and John and James would not contend for the sake of glory, as Clement the Stromateus relates. This James was called "the Just" because of his virtue. This is the one who was cast down from the pinnacle and struck on the head with a club by the fuller, leading to his death. For the Jews, when Paul appealed to Caesar and was sent to Caesar by Festus—having failed in the hope for which they had concocted their plot against him—turned their attention to this James and said, "Restrain the people, since they have been led astray into Jesus; for we bear witness to you, and all the people do, that you are a just man." It was the Passover at that time. And having set him upon the pinnacle, they said, "O Just One, we all obey you. Since the people are led astray after Jesus who was crucified, proclaim to us what is the door of God." But when he replied that Jesus is seated in heaven at the right hand of the great power, and is about to come upon the clouds of heaven, they all shouted, "Alas! Alas! Even the Just One has been led astray." They cast him down therefore, and pelted him with stones. And immediately, Vespasian besieged them. ^D James was so just that the prudent among the Jews supposed these things had happened because of him. Josephus also writes: "These things happened to the Jews as retribution for James the Just, who was the brother of Jesus, the one called Christ."

Now concerning the manner of his end—that is, his being cast down and stoned, and his kneeling and praying for them, and his being struck with a club and perfected—Clement has recounted it, while Josephus says these things: "He drank no wine or strong drink, he ate no meat, no razor passed upon his head, he did not anoint himself with oil, and he made no use of a bath." It was permitted to him alone to enter into the holy places and pray for the people, so that his knees had become hardened like a camel's from kneeling and praying for the forgiveness of the people. But the Jews killed him after the death of Festus, having found a moment of anarchy.

^A Now this James, namely the brother of the Lord, was not numbered among the twelve disciples, but nonetheless held the first rank among them. For when the Lord had risen from the dead, as Clement says, He imparted the knowledge to Peter, John, and James the brother of the Lord, and they to the rest. For before the resurrection, the brothers of the Lord were indignant at the Lord and did not believe Him, as the evangelist John says. But pay attention, beloved. For even if the Lord chose those twelve first, and even if He deemed them worthy of greater honor, and even if He promised that they would sit on twelve thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel, and that they would be His fellow-guests on that day because they remained with Him, still we have the Lord Himself elsewhere saying to the sons of Zebedee, when they asked for a seat on the right and on the left: "It is not Mine to give this, but to those for whom it has been prepared by My Father." If, therefore, that honor is not given by grace but according to the struggles that each individual will demonstrate, do not marvel if those who, like Paul, and indeed James the brother of the Lord, have struggled, are found to be partners and sharers in the honor of the twelve. For this is what he who had the golden tongue said, that no one would be greater than Paul at that time. That the disciples of Christ were intended to be twelve in number, and not more or fewer, has been declared from the beginning. And give attention, if you will, to what is said. For in the way that this sensible sun, beginning from the first sign and having made its own cycle through the twelve signs of the zodiac, and having fulfilled all its own course in them, returns again to where it began its journey, so also the intelligible Sun of righteousness, our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God and God, having risen upon the world as He Himself willed, and having run through the world beneath the heavens through the twelve disciples, having accomplished all His will through them, returned again to where He came from. ^B And that the twelve disciples chosen by the Lord, and indeed those who struggled like them, have obtained a better place than those patriarchs of old, the golden-tongued John showed more clearly. For He said that they would sit on twelve thrones and judge the twelve tribes of Israel, an honor which he did not give to the patriarchs. And although many shall come from the east and west, and shall recline with Abraham and Isaac, no other person shall be a fellow-sitter with the apostles. And that they, having appeared at that time under a shadow, are less than those who have flourished in the truth. And these things, indeed, were said by the golden-tongued one, while Theodore [sic]...

^B asserts that those who think and speak thus of those ancient fathers are in error. For although they did not see the Lord with their senses, they did see Him in their intellect. And how could he be inferior who receives the saints into his bosom? And what of Moses, who was transformed along with the Lord’s transformation, with Elias also present, with such majesty and glory that they could speak with Him concerning both the cross and the death to follow? This is the opinion of Theodoret. You, however, beloved son, should rather adhere to the words of that golden orator. And for what reason? Because they are in harmony with the words of the Lord, who also speaks to the apostles in the Gospel according to Luke: "Blessed are the eyes that see what you see. For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it" (Luke X, 23). What, then, are these things? They are, clearly, all those things that occurred during the administration of the Word in the flesh, the sight of which was granted to the apostles alone. Wherefore the apostles excel the prophets in two respects: both in having seen Christ bodily and in having been initiated into divine matters spiritually.

And if you seek to learn how many there are who have been raised from the dead, and who they were, we will not hesitate to enumerate these very resurrections for you. There are, in total, eight such resuscitations recorded. The first, the son of the woman of Sarephta, whom the prophet Elias restored to life. The second, the son of the Shunamite, whom Elisha raised. The third, that soldier who, upon touching the relics of Elisha, leaped up as if from a fire. The fourth, the daughter of the ruler of the synagogue. The fifth, the son of the widow. The sixth, Lazarus. The seventh, the many bodies of the saints. The eighth, finally, was that most holy and Lordly body itself; although certain heretics, the Apellians, were so mad as to claim that the body of the Lord was dissolved in the tomb into the four elements of which it consisted. But those many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep arose ^C primarily so that through this very miracle, He who was then suffering might be publicly proclaimed to be God; and at the same time, that faith in the final and common resurrection of mortals might be confirmed, and that the liberation and return of the souls that had been held in the underworld might be made manifest. For the souls that believed in Christ as He descended to the underworld were immediately released and set free. And because it was not possible for souls to be seen with sensible eyes, by a divine plan the souls of those holy men who had fallen asleep appeared with their bodies, so that faith might be more perfect; and then they flew back again to the places destined for them. Beware, however, beloved son, lest your mind also be led astray by the fables that are rumored here and there. For if it is claimed by many that Magdalen...

Magdalene, and heard from her that Christ healed a man blind from birth, and hence remarked to her that He must have known well the minerals of the earth (for if this were not so, He would not have enlightened that blind man), we too are aware of this, but we class such a rumor among the myths. For it is impossible that Galen could have met the Magdalene, as they say, given that he mentions the Emperor Marcus in his writings to Piso, and Commodus again in the first book of his work *On Morals*; for from our Lord Jesus Christ to that very reign of Commodus, about one hundred and fifty years are found. And so much for this.

I know, however, beloved son, that you have also proposed this among other questions: Why, you ask, did the disciples of Christ and the apostles, in recording other matters, keep silent altogether concerning the Dormition of the Ever-Virgin? And it is possible to answer that the evangelists, in narrating the economy of our Savior in the flesh, proceeded up to His very ascension from earth. But the immaculate Mother of our Lord Jesus Christ is said to have reached a deep old age, as the most divine Andrew of Crete maintains. Therefore, it was impossible for the Dormition of the Ever-Virgin to be intermingled with the evangelical history, seeing that it occurred, as we said, a long time afterward. Furthermore, the disciples of Christ did not themselves record anything separately concerning this, because they were occupied with the account of the economy, and were concerned that they might make the unbelievers believers and might bring all to the blameless faith in Christ; thus they overlooked other things, especially those that did not contribute to the divine preaching.

Yet the story of that divine Dormition has not been kept entirely silent, for the divinely-inspired and great Dionysius is found to have written some wondrous things concerning it in his letters to Timothy. And pay attention, if you will, to what is said. For that divine man discusses this matter in these very words: "And we ourselves, as you know, along with many of our holy brethren, had gathered for the viewing of the life-giving and God-receiving body, and there were present also James the brother of the Lord and Peter, the chiefest of the apostles." To these he also brings forward the one who led that divine hymn, who had become possessed by God, standing outside himself and, as it were, departing for the hymnody as he was transformed. And what need is there for many words? The inspired Dionysius reveals through his own words—to Piso, about 180 years, for from our Lord Jesus Christ to that very reign of Commodus—

^A he brings food from Judea to him in such a way, such are the prodigies. The same prophet is present for Daniel, and he is not lacking for the reapers.

After Cyrus, Cambyses his son, who also had the surname Nebuchadnezzar, followed him. Holophernes was the commander of his forces, whom the prudent Judith killed, and although she possessed all his wealth, she did not become insolent in spirit, but dedicated all these things to the Lord and served Him in widowhood, living in her accustomed continence until her 85th year. After him, Smerdis the Magus, then Darius the son of Hystaspes, under whom Zerubbabel and Jesus finished the temple that had been neglected, occupied the kingdom. After Darius, Artabanus reigned, whom Artaxerxes Longimanus succeeded. In his time Sophocles, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Thucydides, Euripides, Herodotus, Empedocles, Diogenes, Hippocrates, Plato, and Aristotle were famous. After Artaxerxes, another Artaxerxes arose, and others in order succeeded as kings of the Persians up to Darius the son of Arsames, who being defeated and the Persian kingdom ^B overthrown, Alexander took over and possessed the empire of the world.

From this, therefore, learn that the first kingdom was of the Assyrians, or the Babylonians; the second of the Medes, by whom the first was destroyed; then after this, the Persians, who succeeded the empire of the Medes; the fourth of the Macedonians, by whom the Persians were defeated; and lastly, the Romans.

After Alexander, his attendants and princes divided the kingdom. Ptolemy the son of Lagos ruled over Egypt, whom fifteen other Ptolemies followed in order up to Cleopatra. Antigonus occupied Asia, while Seleucus Nicator occupied Syria and Palestine, and founded two cities in Cilicia and one in Syria. Of these he named the first Seleucia, the second Antioch, and the third Laodicea, from his own name and that of his son and daughter. In his time, the Rhodians, having gained the empire of the sea, erected a statue of the sun in bronze on their island, which, because of its great size, they called the Colossus, and they themselves were subsequently called Colossians. After Seleucus, his son Antiochus reigned, and five of the same name later on. Then Antiochus Illustris, the son of Seleucus Philopator, obtained the kingdom, under whom Jerusalem was ^C captured a second time. For, having seized all of Egypt like a grasping and unjust man, he returned to Jerusalem in wrath, whither he sent a commander who brought many evils upon the holy city and forced the people to embrace the Greek religion. There existed then a certain Matthias, who had five sons, and among others, Judas, who, moved by divine zeal, initiated the military campaign. ^D

(12) Some suspect that the Rhodians were called Colossians from the Colossus of the sun which was erected, to which Glycas refers. Who this Artabanus is, whom he places between Darius the son of Hystaspes and Artaxerxes Longimanus—I know not, unless perhaps it is an error of the name; for it is Xerxes who was the son of Darius and the father of Artaxerxes. What he adds, however, that he was illustrious, Sophocles, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Thucydides, Euripides, Herodotus, Empedocles, Diogenes, Hippocrates, Plato, and Aristotle, this is clearly a mistake, as in our universal library, from which I recently excerpted the chronological library of ecclesiastical and secular affairs, he demonstrates.

^A all the fullness of the Godhead dwells bodily, that is, essentially. As that renowned Athanasius of ours says. Therefore also Paul ^B said that in Christ the whole fullness of divinity dwells corporally, that is, essentially.

In this manner she conceives in her womb, the virginal belly swells: Joseph is not a little troubled by this, and contemplates putting away the pregnant woman secretly. A divine angel stands by him in a dream, saying, “Do not fear to take Mary your wife; for that which is conceived in her is of the Holy Spirit.” ^C Therefore, having awakened from sleep, he took his wife, and did not know her until she brought forth her firstborn Son. Now, the great Basil says that Joseph did not know this most pure virgin either before the birth or after the birth. For the word “until” is found in many places of the Holy Scripture to be indefinite, as when it says, “And the raven did not turn back until the earth was dried.” And indeed, the raven did not turn back even after the earth was dried. And in another place: “The Lord said to my Lord, Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet.” If the word “until” were not indefinite, we would then say that the Lord ceases to sit after his enemies have been placed under his feet. Also the Savior Christ said to his disciples: “And I will be with you always, until the end of the age.” If the word “until” were not indefinite, it follows that Christ will not be with his disciples after the consummation of the world. And yet Paul says thus: “We shall be caught up together in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air, and so we shall always be with the Lord.” And these things are thus. But the great Athanasius says that Joseph did not truly know her until she brought forth the Lord. He did not know what that was which was in her. Only when she brought forth, then indeed he began to know. Then Joseph knew what was the power of the virgin. Then he knew, when she had been delivered, and he did not perceive the things of childbed, when she provided milk in a strange way and a breast alien to natural nourishment, when she gave the teat and yet did not suffer any ^D vein-depletion. But do not consider the matter strange. For because the one being born was God and man, He necessarily joined to Himself both divine and human things. Human things were the swelling of the belly, the nine-month period of the pregnancy, the customary exit of the one being born, the nourishment with milk, and the growth from a small size to the appropriate stature of his body: for, as the blessed Paul says, He experienced all our things, sin alone excepted. Again, the divine things were the seedless conception, the miraculous pregnancy, and the undefiled birth. And this is what the theological tongue said: “The laws of nature are dissolved.” For among other things, the most pure one bore Christ without maternal pangs; for according to the Damascene, where pleasure did not precede, reasonably neither did pain follow. That the things of the pregnancy were miraculous, even Dionysius the Areopagite showed, saying thus concerning

[GREEK COLUMN] Maximianus his son. After Georgius, the Confessor Theophanes, also hegoumenos of the [Monastery of the] Agros, composed the remainder up to the death of the Emperor Nikephoros, the one from the *genikoi* [officials]. Under whom Scylitzes began his chronological history from Michael Rangabe.

The Great Constantine, when he campaigned against Maxentius, then saw in the heavens the honorable cross, by which he conquered. Then, having become slothful and having rushed against his enemies, he was defeated; and, despondent, he fell asleep, and in a dream was struck on his nostrils by a rod, and the blood issuing from there he traced into the form of a cross upon a linen cloth. Having seen these things, and having become repentant for the matter, he conquered his enemies again. But after these things, he was led astray into idol-mania by his wife Fausta. But God drew him back again through leprosy; for that disease, having taken hold of him, severely straitened and afflicted him in every way. And as the priests of the Capitoline Zeus advised, infants were gathered so that they might be slaughtered and he might be immersed in their blood, and thus, supposedly, be delivered from the disease. Passing by, therefore, and hearing their mothers lamenting, and having learned the cause of the lamentation, he said: "It is better for me to suffer than to condemn so many infants to death." Wherefore, at night, the apostles stood before him, saying that he should call for Bishop Sylvester. The saint is called, therefore, and having baptized him, releases him from the leprosy. The great man afterwards fought so much for the faith that he transformed all the customs: to fast on Wednesday and Friday, to rest on Sunday, not to purchase Jewish servants, and no longer to condemn anyone to the cross because of the reverence for the honorable cross of Christ. Among other things, he also renames the days of the week, which were previously named after Cronus and Ares and the other stars. The spouse of the great one, however, Fausta, daughter of Maximianus, whom he caused to cast off her soul by heat in a bath; the cause was her stepson Priscus Crispus,

[LATIN COLUMN] ANNALIUM PARS IV.

PART IV. CONCERNING THE CONSTANTINOPOLITAN EMPERORS WHO REIGNED THEREAFTER.

[The remainder of this paragraph is fragmented and unreliable; it concerns] other things [which] are suspected and mixed with fables. He killed his wife Fausta, who was the daughter of Maximianus, in a bath that was heated beyond measure. The cause of this was Priscus, Faust's stepson, on account of a crime of the stepmother; [which story] is also found in manuscripts V and F, for which should be substituted, as all antiquity speak[s]...

475 MICHAELIS GLYCÆ

Secundum hæc ab impiæ sententiæ sectatoribus impulsus hic Constantius antistites accersivit, ut synodus coiret, per quam decerneretur Trinitatem unius et ejusdem essentiæ non esse. Verum conatus omnis irritus fuit; nam cum gravem in morbum incidisset deque vita jam desperasset, Euzoium Antiochenum antistitem ad se venire jussit, illustrationemque divinam celeriter consecutus vivendi finem fecit. Ipso vivente pontifex Hierosolymorum erat ^A Cyrillus, vir eximius, qui ad Constantium in hæc verba perscripsit: Patre tuo regnante crux in terris reperta est. Rursum te regnante crux de cœlo est patefacta. Nam in Golgothæ loco, circiter horam diei tertiam, in ipso Quinquagesima festo, signum crucis conspectum est, de luce quadam fulgentissima compactum. Neque tantum ab uno conspectum est vel per imaginationem quamdam, sed ab omnibus et multas quidem in horas.

Post Constantium successit in imperio Julianus, annisque duobus et septem mensibus eo potitus est. Princeps hic nequissimus ante inita regni tempora, quemadmodum magnus ille Cyrillus antistes Alexandrinus commemorat, in numero fidelium erat, ipsum quoque baptismum consecutus, utut deinceps illum per sanguinem impurum et exsecrandum deposuit, et egregie sacris erat in libris exercitatus. Verum deinceps viri quidam superstitiosi cum familiares ei facti fuissent, habilis ad ipsum de fidei desertione sermonibus tandem perfecerunt ut qui sacrosanctis in ecclesiis et monasteriis educatus erat, impurorum dæmoniorum ^B evaderet: cumque facundus esset a natura, linguam suam adversus Salvatorem nostrum Jesum Christum exacuit, et libros adversus religiosum Christianorum cultum tres conscripsit. Tanto furore sanctos oppugnabat, ac præsertim illo ipso tempore quo delapsus ignis e cœlo pulcherrimum illud Antiochiæ suburbium, quod Daphnen vocant, una cum ipsis simulacris exusserat, ut aheneam Christi statuam, a muliere sanguinis fluxum perpessa collocatam Cæsareæ Philippi, quam nunc Paneadem vocant, inhumaniter confregerit; et sacras Joannis Baptistæ reliquias brutorum ossibus permistas concremaverit. Præterea Judæos adversus Christianos armabat, eosdemque juvabat in exstructione templi sui, quanquam in hoc conatu sunt impediti a vento, gravi terræ motu, et igne denique. Nam ignis e fundamentis ipsis cum prosiliisset, eos ab opere instituto deterruit et detraxit.

Sciendum est autem tibi, dilecte fili, quod in hodiernum usque diem nomen illius, qui Julianum in expeditione Persica jaculo confixit, ignoretur. Quanquam enim perscriptum reperiamus in libro ^C de sancti Basilii miraculis, quæ magnus ille vir Amphilochius litteris commendasse perhibetur, mandato perpetuæ Virginis Deiparæ per sanctum Mercurium magni Basilii precibus desertorem hunc trajectum fuisse, non tamen hæc narratio meretur ut ei continuo fidem adhibeas. Quamobrem istuc? Quoniam in eodem scripto legimus magnum Basili- ^D um archiepiscopum Cæsareæ fuisse, quum per ea loca transiret...

^A and at the time in Tiberias; he was seen by James, the brother of the Lord; he was seen by more than five hundred men. And lastly, he was seen by them on the Mount of Olives, where he was also taken up from the earth after forty days, as we have said.

If you wish to learn also the reason why, after his rising from the dead, he spent forty days on earth and neither more nor less, the great Epiphanius resolves this mystery for you in a few words: "For in the same way," he says, "that after Christ was born, he was laid in a manger, wrapped in swaddling clothes, and after forty days was brought into the divine temple and presented to God according to the law of Moses, so too does he do here; and thus he is returned to the Jerusalem above, so that he may appear before the face of God on our behalf." And be persuaded by the great Paul, who says: "For Christ has entered not into things made by hands, which are copies of the true ones, but into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God for us" (Heb. IX, 24).

The Lord was therefore taken up. Ten days pass after that, and the descent of the Holy Spirit takes place. That such a descent occurs after the completion of ten days is because the number ten is perfect. Since, therefore, the Holy Spirit descended for this reason, that he might render the still imperfect disciples perfect, for this cause he descended upon them in this perfect number, that is, on the tenth day. And that he did show the imperfect disciples to be perfect, the chief, Peter, clearly demonstrated. For you who are diligent will see that he, who previously had been terrified by a poor little maid and had denied his master three times, later, having been strengthened by the Holy Spirit, preached with much boldness in the midst of the people, and from that point persuaded all to approach Christ without hesitation.

After fifty days had passed since the resurrection of Christ from the dead, as has been said, the descent of the Holy Spirit takes place. Why? Because the old law was also given, with God appearing on the fiftieth day. For, according to the golden-tongued and divine John—or rather, according to the history of the seer Moses—fifty days had passed from the exodus of the Jews from Egypt, and at that time the tablets which Moses received, ^B engraved by God, were given to him. Therefore, if the old law was given in fifty days, it necessarily had to follow that on that same day the grace of the Holy Spirit should be given; and from this, beloved, one can gather both in the old and in the new covenant that the nature of the Godhead is shown to be indivisible, and that the Holy Spirit was ordained both then and now.

And there appeared to them cloven tongues as of fire. Why tongues? Because there was need of preaching, ^{C D} [alt-version omitted]

lived in shadow, are entirely inferior to those who have existed in the very vigor of the truth. These things are from Chrysostom. Theodoret, however, says that those who feel and speak in this way about those ancient fathers are in error. For although they did not see the Lord sensibly, they nonetheless beheld Him by the understanding of the mind. And who is inferior and lesser than the one who receives the saints into his own bosom? Who was Moses, who, when the Lord was transformed, was himself also transformed, with Elijah also present, with such majesty and glory that they could even converse with Him about both the cross and the death that was to follow? Such is the opinion of Theodoret. ^B But you, beloved son, rather incline toward the words of that golden orator. And for what reason? Because such things harmonize with the words of the Lord, who in the Gospel recorded by Luke speaks to the apostles as follows: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see. For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it.” What, then, are these things? They are, by all means, the things regarding the economy in the flesh, which the apostles alone were deemed worthy to see. Consequently, the apostles surpass the prophets in two respects: both in having seen Christ bodily and in having been initiated by Him into divine matters spiritually.

^C But if you also desire to learn how many have been raised from the dead, and who they were, we will not hesitate to recount these very resurrections by listing them. There have occurred in all eight resurrections of the dead. The first: the son of the woman of Zarephath, whom the prophet Elijah restored to life, came back to life. The second: the son of the Shunammite, whom Elisha raised. The third: that soldier who, upon touching the remains of Elisha, leaped up as if from a fire. The fourth: the daughter of the ruler of the synagogue. The fifth: the son of the widow. The sixth: Lazarus. The seventh: the many bodies of the saints. The eighth, finally, was that most holy body of the Lord which was resurrected; although there were certain heretics, Apellians, who frantically claimed that the body of the Lord in the tomb was dissolved into the four elements of which it had been composed. However, those many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were resurrected primarily so that through this very prodigy it might be publicly declared that He who was then suffering was God; and at the same time, by the mystery of the 231 last and common resurrection, faith might be brought about, so that the liberation and return of their souls might be made manifest, as well as those that had been held in Hades. For those souls that believed in Christ as He descended into Hades were immediately released and set free. ^D And since it was impossible for souls thus naked to be seen by sensible eyes, by a certain divine providence the souls of those holy men who had fallen asleep appeared with their very bodies, so that faith might be increased; and afterward they flew back again to the places destined for them.

Beware, however, beloved son, lest by the fabulous tales that are spread here and there your own mind be perverted. For the rumor has gained ground among many...

that he ordered the wealthy to be destroyed and their properties to be seized. The same man, observing mud in a narrow street of Rome, ordered it to be thrown into the lap of Vespasian, a most strategic man. ^A At that time, Philo the wise and Josephus flourished. This Josephus was called a lover of the truth, because he praised the Lord's Baptist and likewise testified that Christ was a wise man and a worker of great signs, and that after being crucified, He appeared alive on the third day. But do not wonder, beloved, if even some barbarians chose what is good; for God, in fashioning man, implanted in him the discernment of good and evil. For this reason, not only did many of those who were not barbarians loathe an unjust life, but even not a few of the barbarians. For they say that the Hyperboreans dwell beyond the Rhipaean mountains, and that they practice justice, living on tree fruits and water. But also that the Brahmans practice beyond human measure, covering their bodies with leaves and living in the woods. And Anacharsis the Scythian was so possessed by the love of temperance and discipline that even when he slept, he would keep his lips and his private parts with his own hands; for he showed that these parts need such great guardianship not only when one is awake, but also when he is asleep.

^B After Gaius, Claudius held power for 13 years. This Claudius is said to have been so fearful that he would have those standing by him searched, lest they carry a sword in their bosoms. After him, Nero his son [reigned] for 14 years. This most unclean person, being about 17 years old, was the first to begin the persecution and killed the chief apostles, as some other historians say, on one and the same day, but in different years; but as Eusebius of Pamphilus says, in the same year and on the same day. But a certain Tertullian, a man among the illustrious in Rome, and Gaius, an ecclesiastical man, and Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, write that Peter and Paul suffered martyrdom at one and the same time, in the thirteenth year of the reign of Nero. And he killed Peter for such a cause as this. During the time of Nero, there was Simon the Magician, to whom the chief apostle came and found a dog chained in his entryway, devouring those who attempted to enter to see Simon without permission. ^C He commanded it to enter, and with a human voice to announce Peter. And at that time it did this, and all who were within were amazed. Simon himself did this same thing and called for Peter. Simon, however, conversing with the chief apostle, said this among other things: "If Adam had foreknowledge, why did he not foresee the deception of the serpent?" And Peter said: "If he did not have foreknowledge, how did he impose names upon his sons according to their future actions at the very moment they were born? For he named one Cain, which means 'zeal'—for being zealous, he killed his brother..."

He called the other Abel, which name signifies 'mourning'; for because he was killed, his parents were in mourning. But if Adam, who was the handiwork of God, possessed knowledge of future events, much more must that be attributed to the Creator." But that insane man ^B inferred that a certain ignorance fell upon God because the Sacred Scriptures say that God tempted Abraham; and also because they record that God spoke thus with Himself: "I will go down and look at Sodom." Then, after other illusions, Simon was raised into the air, promising that he would send down certain good things to the people from there. But I, Peter, prayed by myself, and looking fixedly at him, I said: "If I am an apostle of Jesus Christ and not an impostor, as Simon claims, I command the evil powers to let him go and hold him no longer." And immediately he was brought down to the earth and shattered into pieces. Hence the Romans keep that day as a notable one; for it was a Sabbath, on which the faithful also engaged in prayer and fasting on behalf of the teacher. This practice prevails there even to this day. Having learned these things, Nero crucified Peter. And Paul, as the golden-tongued orator says in his discourse to those who forbid solitude, he finished by the sword, inasmuch as he had instructed Eperastus, his concubine. For this reason he also stirred up the persecution; for being a lascivious man, he could not bear that his concubines should turn to the Lord. ^C The divine John Chrysostom, a man truly inspired by God, also addresses Paul somewhere in such-like words: "What place, I ask, received that milky blood of yours, seen on the garment of him who impaled you? Which indeed, rendering his barbarian soul sweeter than honey by its great power, made him who was previously an unbeliever into a believer." Both of them, as the same Chrysostom testifies, fell asleep in the city of Rome, on the 29th of June, under the Emperor Nero.

I know, beloved son, that you, while reading through the history of the Acts of the Apostles by the divine Luke, have reasonably doubted whether it is consistent that Luke, having set forth all the other deeds of Paul, should have chosen to pass over in silence his blessed migration from this life. It is possible to answer this question in this way: that Luke composed the book of the Acts at that time when Paul had arrived in Rome for the first time; and for this reason it came to be that he recounted the other deeds of Paul but omitted the testimony of his faith, as it had not yet come to pass. ^D For Paul, being free at Rome for two whole years, was carrying out the duty of preaching; and up to this time Luke was with him. Then, having returned to Rome a second time, and having taught the rudiments of the Christian religion to Eperastus, Nero's cupbearer and also his concubine, he closed his life with a blessed end. That Luke himself was not with Paul earlier, Paul confesses in the second Epistle to Timothy, which he wrote when cast into chains by Nero. "In my first," he says, "defense..."

He was the grandson of Heraclius, and reigned for 27 years. At that time, that false prophet Moameth appeared. For the Israelites, up to the time of Heraclius, practiced idolatry, worshiping Astarte—that is, the moon—whom they also called Chaber, which means "great." At that time, Moameth arose among them. Serving a certain wealthy woman, he later took her as his wife. He also suffered from epilepsy, and wishing to conceal this affliction, he claimed to see the angel Gabriel; being unable to bear his sight, he would grow faint and fall. The things concerning him appeared worthy of belief on account of a certain Arian monk who bore false witness for him for the sake of base profit. This Moameth, having gone to Palestine and encountered Jews, Arians, and also Nestorians, drew from them all and handed down a religion of his own. He does not use the law in its entirety; for he taught circumcision, but not the observance of the Sabbath. He also calls himself the gatekeeper of paradise, and says that three rivers flow within it: of honey, of wine, and of milk. He further says that only a shadow of Christ was crucified by the Jews out of envy, for God had taken Christ himself up because He loved him. To the inquiry of that time—"Did you, O Jesus, claim yourself to be God?"—he alleges that Christ replied that he did not name himself God, but that men did so. He taught that all things are determined and come to be for men from God. Moses and Aaron, he claimed, would indeed stand at the judgment of Christ, but would be sent away to punishment as deceptive men. He also said that we are to have life there through perishable food and drink. Furthermore, they secretly worship Aphrodite. This is clear from their prayer; for they say thus: "Alla alla ua, cabar alla," which is to say, "God, God is greater," and the great one, that is, the moon, the goddess Aphrodite.

After the death of the God-rejected Moameth, a comet-star appeared toward the south for thirty days, signifying the inroad of the Arabs; for at that time they seized Damascus and many other places. Their land is praised, for it is very fruitful on account of the temperate air. Moreover, the rue tree does not differ from the fig tree in height. And in Palestine there is a fountain that provides healing, in which they say the Lord washed while traveling. And a tree stands there that is a remedy for every infirmity; this tree bent down to the earth and, as it were, worshiped the Lord as He was fleeing into Egypt; it still preserves the shape of that worship. There is also the "bataritis" root, a flame-like one, to which no one dares to draw near; it is pulled up by a dog tied near the root. The root, when carried by a demon-possessed person, puts the demon to flight. Opobalsam is also cultivated in abundance there. For this reason, God gave this land to the people of Israel as something exceptional. In it, the Lord also accomplished all things. Consequently, the interpreters of the land called it the eye of the earth.

...and in the same mode it became known to all, at the same hour that the deacon had read that prayer over the tomb, that by a new and admirable arrangement that brother had been freed from his sacred bond. From this, too, one may sufficiently estimate what great power resides in that bond by which mortals are bound by priests. In the ecclesiastical history of Philo the philosopher, it is found that during a certain time of the old persecutions, a certain elder was excommunicated by his bishop. But when that aforementioned elder had gone away somewhere for a necessary cause, it happened that he was seized by the Gentiles and sealed the truth with his testimony. For this reason, a ^A church was built on that spot, and dedication ceremonies were performed; and when the bishop pronounced these words, "Peace to all," the bier left the church, and this did not happen once, but two or three times. Hence, the elder appeared in a dream to the bishop, saying, "Go, and be the author of my case to my bishop that he may come here and loose me from my bonds. For he excluded me from my sacred office, and for that reason I am unable to participate in the sacred rites with you. I have indeed attained the crown of testimony, but I have not yet looked upon the face of God. But if he who bound me does not come here to set me free, no other person will be able to do so." When, therefore, these things were complied with, the bier ceased to leave the church. And for this reason all gave glory to God, who had granted such power to His servants. John, that golden-mouthed orator, discourses on this matter in words of this kind: "We, indeed, according to the ecclesiastical law and prescription, impose bonds upon some. If anyone makes little of these, let him know that the time of death and judgment will approach, which shall teach him that the word of God and the laws of His Church are in no way false or mendaciously devised."

After Leo, his son Constantine, by the surname Copronymus, held the empire for 34 years—a variable leopard from a most savage lion. There was no sort of iniquity in him. He forbade by law that the saints be called by this name; he ordered their relics to be spit upon; he proclaimed that no one should implore their intercession, asserting that they could, forsooth, provide nothing; and, what is greater than every blasphemy, he held the same opinion concerning the Mother of God. For concerning her he said that as long as she carried Christ within herself, she was to be honored and venerated; but from the moment she gave birth to Him (oh, what is Your patience, Christ!), she differed in nothing from other women. A reflection and image of this matter can be taken from a purse; when it is filled with gold coins, it is accustomed to be held in value, but when it is emptied, it is considered worth nothing. ^C Furthermore, he endeavored with great zeal to profane the sacred houses. For he blotted out the religious images that had been brought in, and in their place, he substituted paintings of circus games and hunts. And he did not only contrive crimes of this kind, but he also persecuted the followers of the monastic life and slaughtered them like lambs. When Artabasdus, of whom we have made mention above, saw these things, he brought war against Constantine, and having cast him down, he himself was proclaimed emperor. Then, indeed, piety began to flourish again, and the churches recovered their former beauty. But that Beliar could not endure these things. For Constantine wormed his way into the armies, inflamed them with flatteries, and gathered military forces. He engaged in battle with Artabasdus, won a ^D decisive victory, and overpowered him.

^A ...making the expedition against the Persians. But these things do not seem [correct] also to the great Gregory the Theologian; for if, as he says in the prefaces, the great Basil was sitting in Pontus after this man [Valens] had subsequently ascended to power, with Eusebius being the high priest of the Caesareans at that time, then it is far more certain that he [Basil] was not yet a high priest in the times of Julian. From this it appears, therefore, that Julian, when passing by, neither found the great Basil to be high priest, nor did he threaten him and his Church. But neither did he [Basil] make any petition for this reason [to have him killed], nor was Christ’s martyr Mercurius sent to destroy the apostate; for if these things had happened this way, the one who threw the spear at him would not have remained unknown until today. Therefore, the wretched man is struck by a spear, though the one who threw it is unknown. But as I heard from someone, says the Theologian, he was not even taken into the tomb, but was rejected and cast out by the earth that was shaken on his account, a prelude, I believe, of the punishment hereafter. For after doing many abominable things, he died at about the age of thirty. But also, having sent a demon from Persia to the West to bring back a response quickly, he was frustrated there as well regarding his goal; for the demon he sent, upon encountering a certain monk named Publius who was praying, could not go on for ten days, and having returned with his mission unaccomplished, it shouted [of his defeat]. And the heartless man, slicing open women, would divine by their entrails. ^B After Julian, Jovian reigned excellently for one year, who, when being chosen by all, said: "I cannot be emperor of polluted men," upon which all cried out, "We are Christians." Yet after eight months of his reign, he died in Cilicia, leaving great grief for all. After him, Valentinian [reigned] for twelve years, having received the empire from God as a reward for his having been cast out by Julian on account of his confession for the sake of Christ. He had his own brother, the most disgraceful Valens, as co-emperor in the East. And how is this man not the most wicked, if he even burned on a ship the eighty priests who were sent to him from Constantinople for the sake of an embassy? This man, being warred against by the Goths, sought help from his most divine brother. But he not only did not give it, but even rebuked him, saying: "It is not right to help a man who is warring against God." And Valens, having reigned impiously for fourteen years, was delivered to the fire by the enemy in a barn; but that monk, Isaacius, who was rebuking him—and having been imprisoned by him and delivered to the jail—smelled the stench in the prison ^D of the one burned there, as has been said. Moreover, Valentinian built the aqueduct and brought water into the city. This man also, because of the wife of a certain praepositus...

[LATIN COLUMN] rum secludo et arceo. Praeterea clericos omnes, qui ea vobiscum ausi fuerint ab eo tempore communicare quo colligationem et vinculum hoc meum resciveritis, ordine moveo. Consimiliter Arsacium, quem in solium episcopatus loco magni Joannis illius substituistis, etiam post mortem cùm omnibus qui eum ipso commercium habuerunt ordine movemus, neve perscribatur ejus nomen sacris in tabulis vetamus. Hoc enim indignus est honore, ut qui episcopatum adulterio quasi commisso polluerit. Atque huic nostræ de his ordine movendis sententiæ Theophili segregationem, exsecrationem, absolutam denique Christianorum a cœtu exclusionem adjungimus. » Quas litteras ubi recitari Arcadius audivisset, in hæc verba Innocentio rescripsit: « Norunt omnes homines mentis compotes commissa per ignorationem nec divinitus nec per leges puniri, neque adeo quemquam alterius nomine supplicium luere. ^A Quod quidem propterea scripsi, ut mansuetudinem tuam certam redderem nos nihil eorum cognitum habuisse quæ nostris antistitibus et clericis acciderunt, cujus rei testem benignum illum Deum imploramus. Nimirum purus et innocens sum, quod ipsorum condemnationem attinet; quippe cum eorum communione sim usus, causæ nihil erat quamobrem eos affligerem. Quod autem attinet filiam tuam Eudoxiam, scito me illâ parum moderate pro ratione delicti mercedem retulisse. Quo sane factum est ut ex eo mærore ac angustia difficili gravissimaque correpta ægritudine decumbat. Igitur, quod superest, enixe te obsecro ut nos a segregatione liberes nec multipliciter punias; nec enim ipse Dominus idem ob delictum bis hominem percutit. » Ad hasce litteras Innocentius in hunc modum respondit: « Studium diligentiamque vestram Dei præscripto et voluntati consentaneam, quam propter ipsius nomen declarastis, accepimus et probavimus. Quapropter sacris a vinculis soluti ad signa Dominica confirmatis animis accedite. » Hanc ob causam sollicite cogitare cœpit Arcadius quo pacto virum sanctum magnam hanc in urbem reduceret.

Rebus autem humanis exempto Arcadio,

Μετὰ δὲ Ἀρκάδιον ἐβασίλευσε Θεοδόσιος ὁ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ, ὁ καὶ Καλλιγράφος, ἔτη μβ'. Οὗτος ἐξελθὼν ἱππασθῆναι καὶ συμπεσὼν τῷ ἵππῳ τὸν βίον τελευτᾷ. Οὗτος τὸν ἐν τοῖς Χαλκοπρατείοις τῆς Θεοτόκου ναὸν ἔκτισε, πρότερον ὄντα συναγωγὴν Ἰουδαίων. Ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ τεῖχος τῆς πόλεως παρεξέβαλεν. Ἐφ' ᾧ σεισμὸς μέγας ἐγένετο, ὥστε πεσεῖν τὰ τείχη τῆς πόλεως καὶ πολὺ μέρος αὐτῆς. Ἐπικράτει δὲ ὁ σεισμὸς καὶ κατὰ πᾶσαν χώραν μῆνας τρεῖς. Τότε δὴ τότε τοῦ πατριάρχου Πρόκλου καὶ αὐτοῦ τοῦ βασιλέως ἀνυποδέτων λιτανευόντων, συνέβη παιδίον ἁρπαγῆναι καὶ τὸν τρισάγιον ὕμνον μυηθῆναι, καὶ οὕτω τὴν θείαν στῆναι ὀργήν. Τότε καὶ Ἰουδαῖος παράλυτος βαπτισθεὶς ὑγιὴς εὑρέθη. Ὁ μέντοι διαληφθεὶς πατριάρχης Πρόκλος ἐν Κυζίκῳ χειροτονεῖται πρότερον καὶ μὴ δεχθεὶς παρὰ τῶν ἐκεῖσε, χειροτονεῖται ἐνταῦθα. Ὁ δὲ δυσσεβὴς Νεστόριος σὺν ἓξ ὁμόφροσιν αὐτοῦ ἔλεγεν ὅτι Διμηναῖον καὶ τριμηναῖον οὐ δύναμαι λέγειν Θεόν. Ἰωάννης δὲ ὁ Ἀντιοχείας μετὰ τὴν τοῦ Νεστορίου καθαίρεσιν καταλαβών, καὶ λυπηθεὶς ὅτι χωρὶς αὐτοῦ καθηρέθη Νεστόριος, παραλαβὼν τοὺς σὺν αὐτῷ ἐπισκόπους, ἐν οἷς καὶ Θεοδώρητος Κύρου καὶ Ἰβας ὁ Ἐδέσσης, καθαίρεσιν ὑπαγορεύει τοῦ μεγάλου Κυρίλλου.

Some say that this Anastasius was ^A seized by the comitial disease and was thus committed to the tomb, and that afterward a voice was heard from the tomb, which, when opened, revealed a corpse whose arms were missing, having evidently been devoured by the man himself from hunger. At the church of Saint Menas in the acropolis, an excavation was found in which there were many bones of giants; Emperor Anastasius ordered these to be placed in the palace as a curiosity. Similarly, at Saint Mamas, there was a bridge over a great river; because it was believed that a dragon dwelt under this bridge, virgins were sacrificed there among other offerings. These things Emperor Zeno suppressed.

You should know that Emperor Anastasius possessed one very beautiful quality intermingled with his vices; and had he not erred in his divine worship, this goodness might well have outweighed all his other evils. For he completely eradicated a most wicked tax, which history is eager to relate. Every individual—man and woman, maiden, boy and infant, beggar, free-born citizen and slave—had to pay a silver coin to the treasury for excrement, dung, and urine. This burden was imposed even upon animals themselves, for six obols, called "folles," were exacted from the owner for each beast. Anastasius, therefore, respecting certain men of the solitary life who had interceded with him for this cause, completely removed this ^B burden. Now, Kavadh, the king of the Persians, having learned that precious stones lay in a certain fortress and being prevented from seizing them by the demons who dwelt there, had recourse to every kind of sorcery. He summoned Jews and all others, but none of them could achieve anything; only the bishop of that place, by the sign of the cross, drove the spirits away. And so much for these matters.

After Anastasius, Justin the Thracian reigned for 9 years. ^C Under him, a peculiar star appeared in the heavens above the Brazen Gate of the palace for 26 days, and a most dreadful earthquake occurred. Constantinople suffered collapses in various places, but that great city of Antioch was almost entirely swallowed up by a chasm in the earth and became a tomb for its inhabitants; those who remained alive were consumed by fire bursting forth from below. Pompeiopolis was split in the middle, and half of it was swallowed up along with its inhabitants. This shaking of the earth lasted for an entire year. A woman also came from Cilicia ^D of the race of the giants, who exceeded any man, however tall, by one cubit; she was also quite stout in proportion to her height.

After him, Justinian the Great reigned for 39 years. This emperor, even before his reign, was affectionately disposed toward Hilderich, the king of the Vandals. When he had attained the throne, having received letters signifying that Gelimer had risen up against him and had shut him up in prison along with his wife and children.

CONCERNING VARIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

^A ...had committed when they yielded. But what a heavy penalty they incurred, and what wrath of God they brought upon themselves, those who place their hopes in astrologers and soothsayers! And it is indeed a matter to be lamented, the senseless absurdity of impious men. For not only did they deify the largest animals, but even the smallest and most foul. For what could be more loathsome than a fly? Yet nevertheless they proclaimed even the image of this creature to be a god, and that which living they drive away with a fan, they called God in its likeness.

But Elias, the prince of the prophets, he who possessed such freedom of speech that he even spoke thus to Ahab, “As the Lord my God liveth, if there shall be dew or rain these years, except by the word of my mouth” (III Reg. xvii, 1)—he who covered the priests of Baal with such shame that they were all slain by the Israelites at his exhortation—so that he might not suffer from any pride, he was allowed by God to be persecuted by Jezebel to such an extent that he even said to God, ^B “It is enough; take, I pray thee, my life from me; for I am not better than my fathers” (III Reg. xix, 4). One might ask how the prophet, being holy and living according to the law, ate the food provided by ravens. The Lawgiver himself provided this for him by means of ravens, bread in the morning and flesh in the evening. For these laws were established because of the weakness of the Jews. For indeed, Samson was stripped of his grace because of drunkenness and lust, but he received no accusation for having eaten the honeycomb which bees had woven in the carcass of a ^C lion. But observe this, beloved. When the prophet came to Sarepta and was welcomed with a humble bread in the time of famine, he prayed over those vessels, saying: “The jar of flour shall not fail, and the cruse of oil shall not diminish” (III Reg. xvii, 14). But here it is worth inquiring whether there was truly oil in that cruse. For when I hear the prophet saying, “And the cruse of oil shall not diminish, until the day that the Lord sendeth rain upon the earth,” I do not believe that the prophet prayed concerning oil. For when there was such a drought, and men were dying at that time from the lack of water, what benefit would it have been if the cruse provided oil? That cruse was not, therefore, a cruse of oil, since there was no need of oil for those who were suffering because of water. But since oil in Scripture signifies joy, for ^D this reason the prophet called that cruse a cruse of oil. For there is nothing that brings such joy as water during the time of drought. And let the Holy Scripture convince you, which calls water honey. For the Hebrews, being seized by unbearable thirst in the desert, and finding water, seemed to be filled with honey. As regards the...

^A rest, that Joseph [this was the surname of this Joseph], seeing Nicephorus dressed in this way, fell at his feet and said that he would never again believe anyone who spoke against him. By this reasoning, Phocas got away safely from there, and presently Joseph began to repent of his deed, because he had let the prey that had been brought within his nets escape so carelessly. Consequently, by writing letters to John Tzimiskes, the general of the East at that time—a spirited man and one suited for conducting affairs, and, after Phocas, the most illustrious among the other generals—and likewise writing to others, he adjudged that they should make a move and, having separated from Nicephorus, depose him from his position and consign him to the tonsure of the monastic life; and that Tzimiskes should receive the office of Domestic of the East, and might appoint whomever he wished as Domestic of the West. But all of them, being kindly disposed toward Nicephorus, showed the letters of Joseph to him and exhorted him to prepare himself for defense with a strong spirit. In this way, Phocas was proclaimed emperor by the armies of the East, even though for a long time he had been burning with the desire of obtaining both the empire and the Empress Theophano. ^B Then, with his forces, he betook himself to Chrysopolis, and from Chrysopolis he crossed over toward the Hebdomon, and with the whole people he proceeded through the Golden Gate to the church, and there he was girded with the diadem by Polyeuctus. He presided over the empire for six years. At the beginning, he ordered Theophano to be cast out of the palace and to change her place of residence, Joseph also being punished with the same penalty; at the same time, he created his own father Caesar. Afterward, having put aside the mask and the scene, he joined Theophano to himself in lawful marriage, and he began to eat meat again, from which he had abstained from the time when Bardas, his son by his former wife, while intent upon equestrian exercises in the field and playing with his kinsman Pleusa, had been struck by a spear and died against the will of the striker. The marriage having been celebrated in the new temple at the palace, when it was time to enter into the sanctuary, Polyeuctus, holding Phocas by the hand as he approached the holy rails, entered into the adyton himself, ^C but pushing out the emperor, he said that he would not be admitted until he had paid the penalties for proceeding to a second marriage. Furthermore, a rumor had been spread far and wide, which caused no small disturbances in the Church, that one of the children of Theophano had been received by Nicephorus from the holy baptism. And the patriarch did not hesitate to amplify these very things. But the Caesar informed Polyeuctus—who was stalling and refusing to share in sacred things with the emperor—of the whole matter. Stylianus also, the proto-priest of the great palace, from whom this rumor was said to have emanated to everyone, confirmed with an oath that Phocas had done nothing of the sort. Polyeuctus, therefore, although he knew clearly and manifestly that Stylianus was perjuring himself, forgave the emperor for the sin of compaternity; and he who formerly insisted that punishment be inflicted upon him on account of the second marriage, even left this great fault unpunished. After Phocas had arrived at the empire, he instituted an expedition into Syria; and after he had ^D destroyed many

...the enemy, and having been defeated, he donned ^A a robe of purple belonging to one of his own men, and he fled secretly. Having paid the penalty for that war, he was fulfilling the saying: "Greater love has no one than this, that someone lay down his life for his friends." [John xv, 13]

Constans went down to Sicily, wishing to establish a royal seat there, since he was greatly hated by the Byzantines for having brought Pope Martin from Rome to Constantinople with contumely and having sent him into exile to Cherson, because he had disciplined that eminent man for not approving the sect of the Monothelites. When he had lived in Sicily for six years, expecting that his children might come from Constantinople, he was killed in a bath. In those years there appeared Constantine, who also had the name Silvanus, a successor of Paul of Samosata, who taught to attend only to the evangelists and the Apostle, and was corrupted by them. ^B

After Constans, his son Constantine, surnamed Pogonatus or Barbatus, obtained the empire for 17 years. He accepted the appellation of Barbatus for a reason of this kind: having learned in Sicily that his father had died, he set out; upon returning from there, he began to be called Barbatus, because he had returned with a full, thick beard, whereas he had gone there without a beard, having matured. He departed this life from dysentery.

After Constantine was dead, Justinian obtained the empire for 16 years, and having had his nose slit, obtained the name Rhinotmetus. This emperor was hated beyond measure by the whole populace, being a hard man and a scorner of others, thinking that he held all things in his grasp. By reason of this, it came about that Leontius, a patrician, having stirred up a sedition by night, was proclaimed emperor by the Venetians; and when the day had come, he seized Justinian and, having slit his nose, ordered him to be exiled to Cherson. In this way Leontius reigned for three years, ^C at the end of which the same thing happened to him that had happened to Justinian. For, being sent by him against the Arabs—who had a very great army—and having borne his previous misfortune with an unequal mind when he was once and for all defeated by them, he sailed straight to Byzantium, intending to fight. Wherefore Apsimarus—whom others called Tiberius—having been placed in command by Leontius, cut off his nose and shut him in prison. He himself presided over the kingdom for seven years. Leontius was extraordinarily troubled by the prognostications that he held from the stars regarding what would happen to him in the future. For he writes to the Chagan, the ruler of the Chazars, promising money if he would seize Justinian and send him back so that he might cut off his head. Justinian learns of these things and ^D gouges out his eyes, and again becomes emperor of those who had been captured in any way whatever and did not wish to approach him. He even occupied Achrida itself, where the royal palaces of the Bulgarians happened to be; from which he also took many treasures, namely, stones and pearls and one hundred centers of gold. After all these things, having arrived in Athens, and having rendered the thanksgiving of victory to the Theotokos, and having adorned that temple with many brilliant and expensive offerings, he returned to Constantinople, and marched through the great gates wearing a golden crown having a crest on top, with Maria, the wife of Vladislav, and the daughters of Samuel and the rest of the Bulgarians preceding him, and thus he entered the church with the trophies. That patriarch Sergius, who at that time was beseeching him much to abolish the "allelengyon"—for he had promised to do this if he were to prevail over the Bulgarians—was not persuaded. The emperor, having accomplished all these things, also wished to undertake an expedition against Sicily. But he was prevented; for having been seized by a sudden illness, he departed, and is buried in the church of the Theologian at the Hebdomon, having installed Alexius, a monk from the Studion monastery, as patriarch. For it happened that he came to visit him along with the precious head of the Forerunner; for he also had him as a counselor for the administration of the common weal.

^A he takes him alive, gouges his eyes out, and by this means Julianus the second truly recovers the empire. For he himself was also accustomed to sacrifice human victims to Venus. Wherefore, during his reign, certain dire diseases spread everywhere by divine wrath, and the plague destroyed such a mass of men that it was no less than that which occurred in the days of Justinian; for entire houses were completely closed up. Moreover, certain horrible terrors appeared to mortals, for when they were beside themselves and carried out of their minds, they thought they encountered certain savage men. Then there arose a great and bitter cold, so that the sea from the northern part of the Pontus petrified from the frost for a hundred miles from the shore, and the thickness of this ice reached thirty cubits, and as snow fell upon it subsequently, it increased by another twenty cubits. In the month of February, the ice having been divided into various fragments, it was carried down as far as the city itself and Abydos; in these fragments, it was possible to see many beasts frozen fast. If anyone wished to go on foot from the acropolis as far as Chrysopolis, he could do so completely unimpeded. And these fragments, striking the walls of the city, shook them vehemently. During the reign of the same Copronymus, a modius of barley sold for 12 aurei. And as the earth cracked in Mesopotamia, a mule came out and with a human voice signaled the incursions of enemies to those who were about to follow. And then a certain eunuch, Nicetas, who held the first rank with Copronymus and knew nothing else but how to eat and drink, was ordained patriarch. At one time, while reading the Gospel in his cell, instead of saying, “From the Gospel according to Matthew,” ^B he pronounced: “From the Gospel according to Matthaeum.” Whereupon one of those standing by said: “Do not divide the diphthong.” To which he replied with anger: “You are babbling; for my soul greatly hates the diphthongs and triphthongs.” The tyrant, returning from an expedition, developed ^C carbuncles on his legs, and died near the Strongylum, seized by a violent fever, having said this and only this on these matters: “I am delivered to unquenchable fire for the sake of the Virgin, yet from now on let her be honored.” Know also, beloved, that having sought many and many times whence he was called Copronymus, we found nothing else but this alone. There is a certain region so called Caballa. Those, therefore, who originate from there were naturally called Caballini. From there, therefore, he also had his birth, and since, according to a certain custom, dung is called *caballina*, most justly that wickedest man was called Copronymus, as if carrying the name ^D of dung in himself. I wish you to observe in this place, beloved son, that we have made many and frequent inquiries as to why this emperor was called Copronymus, and have found only this: that there is a certain region which is called Caballa; from it, whoever originated were called Caballini. Wherefore, since this Constantine derived his origin from there, and as the custom has taken root that we say *stercus caballinum* (horse dung), not without reason was that most wicked man called Copronymus, as one who carried a dung-derived name in himself.

After him, his son Leo from the Khazar woman reigns for five years, being pious at first; but then he wears the crown of the Church, whence he is charred as if by a violent fever and dies. At that time, there was also that dog which recognized the murderer of its master as he entered the tavern.

…the name of the foolish one), but when I looked into the mirror, I saw the forms represented there by reflection, and I called them puppets.” So much did Theophilus loathe the images, insomuch that he even shut up that religious man, Methodios, who was a champion of the images, in a certain cavern just as a corpse is hidden in a tomb. And not only this, but he also joined two robbers with him. Then, indeed, when one of them died, he became a cause of much stench to the blessed man. At that time, those who had their foreheads branded and were being sent into exile, through the agency of a certain fisherman, wrote to Methodios in these words, included in iambic verses: ^A

290 To the living corpse and the life-bearing dead man, Dwelling on earth and yet treading the pole, The bound write to the bound, and those inscribed to the inscribed.

To this, Methodios wrote back in this sense:

To those who are in turn enrolled in the books of heaven, And who are not without praise for having their faces marked, The living buried one greets them as fellow-prisoners.

^B However, God brought Methodios out of that cave in a strange and admirable way. For Theophilus, being a lover of learning, encountered certain writings difficult to understand, whose meaning he could not find. Having heard from someone that no other mortal could explain such writings more successfully than Methodios, who was in the tomb, he immediately called him back from there and thereafter held him in great esteem. And because the jaws of Methodios had been paralyzed by Theophilus on account of his speaking out on behalf of the holy images (for after the Seventh Synod this emperor renewed the iconoclasm), they were bound with a thin cloth. ^C Hence, a custom has prevailed even until now, as I think, among chief priests, to have bands bound on their front parts.

But also, as Theophilus was dying, he requested that the holy images should not be restored, nor that the patriarch John, a renowned sorcerer, should be removed. But after he had departed this life, Theodora removed John, and having deposed him, substituted the holy man Methodios in his place. Then, indeed, his adversaries suborned a certain prostitute to bring charges against Methodios; when this matter was brought into court, Methodios lifted the hem of his garment and exposed his private parts. They were completely cold and withered. Being asked for what reason his manhood had withered so greatly, he replied that he had once been sent to Rome for a certain necessity, and having suffered an inflammation of carnal desire there, he begged for the help of the disciples of Christ. Upon which he thought he saw in a dream the primate Peter, and that when he touched his private parts, he felt a fire consuming them. From that time on, those members of his had been dead, and the inflammation of desire had no longer troubled him. But as the first woman led Adam out of Paradise, so Lady Theodora led her spouse into Paradise. ^D When she, therefore, received proof of the matter, she showed kindness to these holy Fathers, through whom...

putrefactis vermibus et fœtore scateret, misere vitam finiit, in Prote insula pulvere corporis deposito, ubi novas ædes exstruxerat, religiosis exercitiis destinatas. ^A Imperavit post ipsum Michaelus cognomento Parapinaces annos sex, homo plane mollis, et ad rei publicæ gubernationem, ut ita dixerim, femina. Rerum administrandarum potestatem Joanni Sidæ antistiti commisit, a quo præclare omnia gerebantur, ut qui vir egregius et industrius esset: verum huic bono tritico tandem etiam malarum herbarum aliquid admixtum fuit. Nicephorus enim, eunuchus, qui diminuto vocabulo Nicephoritzes appellabatur, ante imperium Michaeli hujus accusatus ob sexcenta flagitia solumque vertere jussus, nunc a Michaelo revocatus omnem potestatem accepit, spado quidem ille, sed rerum perturbandarum et ima sursum vertendi peritissimus. ^B Posteaquam is ad gubernationem accessit, ubique sunt auditæ querelæ, bonorum publicationes, exactiones injustæ; quas consecuti sunt publici gemitus et ejulationes cum iræ divinæ declaratione. Cum enim Turci viderent fœdera pacis inita cum Diogene prorsus in irritum recidisse, quemque suam in potestatem redactum magno in honore habuissent, eum a Romanis crudeliter interfectum esse, magnis cum copiis a Perside profecti provincias Romanas invaserunt. Ea re motus Michaelus etiam ipse conscribit exercitum, cui prætorem dat Isaacium Comnenum, qui profectus in hostem ad Cæsaream commisso cum Turcis prælio captivus abducitur, ^C omnesque copias amittit. Imperator accepto infelicis pugnæ nuntio, non poterat non ille quidem mærere, totus tamen non emendabatur, ut qui tanquam mancipium aliquod Nicephori consiliis et auctoritate duceretur. Cum Isaacius pretio numerato redemptus fuisset, Joannes Cæsar ejus loco dux copiarum est delectus. Neque vero verbis exponi potest quantæ Romanis in hac Turcorum incursione calamitates acciderint. Nam ipse quoque Cæsar in hostium potestatem venit, cumque de se præbuisset, rasis crinibus in regiam sese contulit. Atque hæc erant illa præclara Nicephoritzæ facinora, qui reliquas inter improbitates etiam singulari sollicitudine lucris inhians, ut in excogitandis malis fecundissimus, quo annonæ caritas exsisteret procuravit. Etenim ubique ^D locorum prohibebat ne qui mercatores annonam venderent; atque interim ipse solus juxta Rhædestum fundacum et monopoliis institutis, ut inde fundaca a fundo, Michael gnarus quidam dicens, si non adderet etiam Parapinacem, non esset cito agnitus, eo quod tunc modius [pinakion], id est patina, numismate venderetur. Parapinaces dicitur, eo quod tunc modius patina venderetur numismate.

or permitted her, especially since he was already lying ill in bed. Moreover, the empress was somewhat alienated in spirit from the son of John, the emperor-designate, and had transferred all her goodwill to Bryennius. For this reason, John studiously cultivated the senate and the other orders in favor of his eldest daughter and her husband.

^C Now, one of those Latins who had set out toward the East, named Bohemond, having made a treaty with the emperor and received great sums of money, set upon Antioch in the emperor's name. Having taken it by force, he forgot their pacts and did not hesitate to invade the Romans themselves. Then, intending to journey toward the West, and fearing he might be intercepted by the Romans, he spread a false rumor of his own death, and thus achieved what he wished. Yet later he returned to friendship with the emperor.

But soon after this, the sovereign was seized by such a grave illness that he seemed to be failing in spirit. ^D Therefore, there was brought to him an image of our Savior which stands at the Chalke, which is seen suspended on a veil before the image itself. When this had been spread over the sick man's bed, he recovered his strength entirely. This event struck not only the common people, but even the nobles and magistrates with a kind of fear. For a rumor was prevalent among the masses that the emperor was destined to pay the debt of nature on that very Great Sabbath; which, indeed, when brought to the emperor, tormented his spirit not a little, although the event itself proved it to have been false.

From then on, the emperor spent the entire spring and summer near Philippopolis. The reason was his discussion concerning religion with the Manichaeans, whom the common tongue calls Paulicians. This race of people is settled in great numbers in that region, having been brought down from the East and placed in colonies by the emperor John Tzimiskes. Debating with them, he brought many back to the orthodox faith.

At that time, many fires broke out here and there. And when spring approached, [E] such violent gusts of wind arose that, among other downfalls and ruins of works, the statue set upon the column in the forum called the Plakoton also fell, and many of those who happened to be there were killed; and a torrential rainstorm broke out on the memorial of the holy apostles, so severe that buildings collapsed and both men and beasts were drowned by the waters.

In the midst of these things, there was an incursion of Turks against the Romans. The sovereign, not being able to campaign in person, as he was bedridden, sent out an army under the leadership of Eustathius Camytzes, who, having clashed with the Turks, was taken prisoner and lost his army. The sovereign could no longer tolerate this, but went there himself and dispersed the Turks like smoke. And those who were holding Camytzes prisoner, turning deserters, came with him to the emperor. [F] After this, the ruler of the Turks made a treaty with the emperor, and each party went home.

But when, after this, his illness grew worse, by the common opinion of the physicians, he received a burning iron against his stomach. And because the air in the palaces seemed unwholesome, being somewhat humid, he was moved to the palaces of the Manganes, as fate—it seems—was dragging him down; for those skilled in such things say that it was written concerning him: "He will fall in birth-pains." He died, therefore, in that place, having reigned...

631 MICHAELIS GLYCE ANNALIUM 632 bastocrator, and Manuel the emperor’s brother through his daughter, Alexius Branas, is appointed commander. He, having returned after a successful war, and Alexius Comnenus, his nephew through the brother of the same Manuel, incites William, King of Sicily, to seize Dyrrachium and Thessalonica; upon the capture of which, enormous cruelty was exercised by the Sicilians. Hence, Epidamnus, Amphipolis, and Mosynopolis came into the power of the enemy, as Andronicus, through folly and luxury, did not come to the aid of his own [people]. As these evils increased daily, Andronicus began to be anxious about his successor. Therefore, having learned through wicked arts that some man whose name was Isaac would be his successor, he himself thought that the Isaac who (as has been said) had occupied Cyprus was meant; but his intimates feared Isaac Angelus, to whom Andronicus was thoroughly opposed. Wherefore, by his own counsel, Stephen Hagiochristophorites, the most savage administrator of Andronicus’s crimes, prepares himself to kill Isaac; who, as if in a desperate situation, anticipating Stephen, kills him with his own hand. Then, betaking himself to the Great Church, he implores the aid of the thronging people. They, arming themselves more and more, proclaim Isaac Angelus Emperor and lead him to the palace. From there, guards were sent to pursue the fleeing Andronicus. He had reached the Tauroscythians with his wife Anna and a certain harlot named Chelen, intending to cross from there. But, having been cast back onto the shore several times by sea storms, he was captured by those pursuing him. ^A Brought to Isaac, after various insults, his right hand is cut off. After a few days, having had his other eye gouged out, he was placed upon a mangy camel and led through the forum in a triumphal display. Then some struck his head with clubs; others befouled his nostrils with dung; others squeezed sponges filled with the excrement of men and beasts into his face; others assailed his parents with obscene words; certain ones pricked his sides with spits; finally, an impudent harlot poured a pot full of boiling water onto his face. Led in this way into the theater, he was suspended by his feet, bound with a rope. Meanwhile, he himself kept crying out, "Lord, have mercy," and, "Why do you break a bruised reed?" Yet the fury of the mob was not even then satisfied by Andronicus being suspended. For with his tunic torn, his private parts were abused; and a certain man thrust a long sword through his jaws as far as his intestines. Also, two of the Latin race drove swords with both hands into his buttocks, to make a trial of which was sharper. After so many hardships, he with difficulty cut off his life, with his right hand moved to his mouth in pain, so that many thought he was sucking the warm blood still dripping from it due to his recent wound. He reigned for two years, having previously also possessed power for the space of one year without the purple and diadem. After his death, his sons also, John and Manuel, perished by blinding.

Henceforth, Isaac, intent on routing the Sicilians who were already threatening even Constantinople, ^B having administered [matters] carefully, beyond the hope of all destroys the Sicilians and recovers the captured cities. More than 10,000 of the Sicilians perished in the war, and about four thousand in prisons from cold and hunger. Commanders were also captured, Richard and Baldwin, together with Alexius Comnenus, the author of the war, whose eyes were soon gouged out. Following these things, Cyprus was unsuccessfully attempted, and the movements of the Vlach nation followed; against whom nothing was done rightly by John, the emperor’s paternal uncle, nor by John Cantacuzenus. Yet Alexius Branas, being sent to subdue them, having aspired to the empire, returned to Constantinople and besieged it. But not long after, his attempt proving vain, he was slain by Conrad, Marquess of Montferrat, upon whom the emperor had bestowed the honor of Caesar—a man very sturdy and strong, summoned from Italy to Constantinople with very great largesse, so that he might join in marriage with Theodora, the emperor’s sister. Mention of him was made above, that he had captured the city of Mainz, having conquered it in battle. He met an untimely death, killed through treachery by a certain Chasius in Palestine, where, having captured Loppe (which they now call Accouen) and other towns, he had given a great specimen of virtue and prudence, to the great terror of the Saracens. While the war against the Vlachs was still ongoing, Theodore Mangaphas, whom they later called Morotheodorus, having occupied his native Philadelphia, tried in vain for the empire, being later shut away in perpetual imprisonment.

^C Frederick, too, the King of the Germans, undertook an expedition to snatch Palestine from the Egyptian Saracens. Isaac tried to hinder this journey of his, contrary to the word given, but when he saw that he could accomplish nothing, he finally granted the Germans free passage. The extraordinary hospitality of the Laodiceans toward the travelers shone forth at that time. Wherefore the Germans prayed for every most favorable thing for them from God, and Frederick himself, with hands and eyes raised to heaven, and knees bent on the ground, prayed that they might obtain from God, the governor of this universe, whatever might be useful for life, whatever might bring salvation to their souls. He added this also, that if the remaining provinces of the Romans had received the soldiers of Christ as kindly, he would have very willingly given them [his] wealth brought with him, and that they would have already crossed the Roman borders long ago with spears unstained by the blood of any Christian. But when Frederick, having entered the territory of the Sultan of Iconium, who had himself also granted him peaceful passage, was violated contrary to the faith pledged, he so laid low the Turks at Philomelium and Cingularium in two battles that he became both famous and formidable among the eastern nations, especially after a not long interval of time had passed, when he inflicted similar defeats upon them at Iconium itself, which soon surrendered to him. Having taken possession of the city, the Germans, content with suburban dwellings, and having at least taken away provisions, departed without wrongdoing. Hence, honorably [received] by the Armenians

the second, who was called Zoe, and in this way is proclaimed empress, having held power for five years. At that time, she began with favorable preludes; for she ordered that eighty pounds of gold be given annually from the imperial treasuries to the Great Church of God. She also suppressed the *allelengyon*, emptied the prisons, and did many other such things. In the month of October, on the 31st day, ^A a comet appeared, moving its course from west to east; on this same day, a not inconsiderable defeat of the Roman army occurred, while Michael Spondyles, the prefect of great Antioch, was in command. There was also an inundation of rain that persisted until the month of March itself, with the rivers having overflowed and the low-lying areas forming seas, so that almost all the animals and the crops sown in the earth were choked and perished, and consequently a severe famine followed in the ensuing year. However, the misfortune of the Roman army occurred in Syria. At that same time, a certain prodigy also occurred in the theme of the Thracesians, near the foothills of Mount Kouzinai, where there is a spring of clear and transparent water; at this spring, a certain miserable voice was heard, mixed with wailing and woe, and a lamentation similar to the mourning of women. And this did not happen once or twice, but from the month of March until June of that same year, day and night. When some people went to inspect the place where the voice was resounding, the wailing migrated elsewhere. This, as it seems, portended the misfortune that had befallen the Romans in Coele-Syria. For after Emperor Nicephorus Phocas had restored the majority of the cities of Syria and Phoenicia to the Roman Empire, and after ^B John, his successor, had fortified what had been captured and extended the dominion as far as Damascus—since the emperor who came after them, being obstructed both by civil wars and by constantly campaigning against the Bulgarians, could not well secure the affairs in the East; for he had arrived there only in appearance and had returned at that time, having a constant preoccupation with subjugating the Bulgarians. From that point, then, those in the East, having seized an opportunity, began to consider seeking their own liberty. For this reason, the rebellion was meditated upon during the reign of Basil, but was concealed. But during the reign of Constantine, who was guiding the empire carelessly, the Saracens—with no one to stop them—boldly ravaged the fortifications in the cities, having engaged in great incursions everywhere. With affairs in this state, the emperor [Romanus] ^C set out with an impulse against the Saracens. He came to Philomelion. Ambassadors were sent to him from Beroea, requesting sympathy and admitting to the previous subjugation and the tribute-bearing taxes. But Romanus, wishing to demonstrate some bravery against Syria, just as the emperors before him, does not receive the ambassadors, but rushes against them, neither taking into account the shortage of water, nor the Saracens themselves, who are rather unstoppable in the summer season, as is their custom. He joins battle with such [opponents], and flees; he is defeated, when the account ^D cannot easily express it.

[They were] few, and unarmed, opposing [the soldiers] with swords. ^A They fall, then, to the number of about three thousand. For all that, the citizens, because of their great numbers, forced the gates, burst into the palace, and immediately snatched the gold in the secret vaults and rushed against the emperor himself. He, having become a fugitive, came to the monastery of Stoudios and remained there with his uncle.

It is a small number of the people, therefore, that was slain, on account of the fact that they were unarmed and opposed to armed men. In the end, however, the citizens, having become superior on account of their number, broke down the doors and entered the palace. And when they had plundered the gold stored in the secret vaults, they marched against the emperor; who, in total desperation, betook himself to flight to the monastery of Stoudios, and joined his uncle.

Again, the Empress Zoe is preferred, along with her sister Theodora, whom the people had favored at the beginning ^B since she had declared her benevolence toward them; it seemed necessary that Michael should be sought out immediately. And as the voices of the people were groaning over matters of this magnitude, saying, "Let him be crucified, let him be blinded," Zoe seemed to be swayed by pity for him, but Theodora, appointed by the city prefect, stirred up the masses of men so that they would rush to find them both. And when they arrived, and sensed that they were in the inner sanctuary of the temple, they took refuge there. But being dragged from there, and dragged through the marketplace, they were blinded at the place called Sigma, as Theodora had planned. ^C From that time, Zoe and her sister Theodora governed the public affairs and the senate for about a month with great praise, seeing to it that the abolished magistracy was everywhere granted without price, whereas previously they were for sale.

A deliberation arose as to how Zoe might be lawfully joined in matrimony to one who, through this union, might attain the imperial height. She thought to marry Constantine, who was called Artoklines; for he was comely in form, and was said to be intimate with her. But he was not destined to be her husband, as he was carried off by poison. ^D For this reason, she summoned Monomachos from his exile, whom the Orphanotrophos had sent to Mytilene, to remain there. A rumor had been spread among the commoners that he would be the one to rule. This other [writer], Scylitzes, also recorded that the governors who had previously held [the city] were removed, and the Empress summoned Monomachos from Lesbos, who it was said had been banished by Michael because he was having a relationship with the empress. And although earlier he was not far from the danger of losing his eyes, now, being recalled, he was joined to her in lawful marriage, with the priests of the New Rome reciting the holy prayers, in the year of the world 6550. He gave a brilliant beginning to his imperial administration, and he reigned for twelve years. And while indeed he was utterly ignorant of affairs of war, and [furthermore]...

the immortal, and the incorruptible. And being [so], he will not be a body exempt from all corruption; we are not capable, and for this reason, the...

[663 A] confirms what has been stated; whose words are read thus in the one hundred and ninth [canon]: "If anyone says that Adam was created by God as mortal, and did not become subject to corruption after sin, let him be anathema." So too, most holy man, as many as suppose Adam to be intermediate between immortality and mortality, fall far from the truth of reason.

[663 B] Nor should you hesitate over these things. For if, when God brought forth man, He had then said to him, "In the day that you eat of the tree, you shall die the death," those who opine that he was by nature both mortal and immortal from the beginning would have had something to say. But since the commandment was given long after his creation—from which death indeed took occasion against us, for He says, "If you eat, you shall die the death"—it was not at all appropriate for those who seek to investigate the first man, who are even now reading and searching the Holy Scripture, to be overly curious, since from this they were perfectly aware of the nature in which he was formed, who was in fact fashioned according to the image of God. For it is manifest that God, wishing to honor the workmanship of His own hands, from the very start and from that very beginning, adorned it with the gift of incorruption. And the whole choir of the saints bears witness to this word; so do not disbelieve what is said. For since God wished to appoint man as prince of all earthly things, for this reason (as the gold-tongued John says) He granted him the essence of a soul, desiring thereby that he should also be immortal forever. For if this had not been the case, if Adam had not received from God an intellectual soul, he was going to be nothing according to the most divine John, inasmuch as he was formed from dust, from which site the irrational animals were also brought forth.

[663 C] Understand therefore, O sacred head, that through the great goodness of God, who bestows such things, incorruption was then given to the first-formed Adam, and the grace was at once in him perfect and entirely complete in all respects. For if this had not been, the divine paradise would not have been granted to him to inhabit.

[alt-version omitted]

[663 D] To be born: nothing from nothing, and nothing can revert to nothing. He would not have been going to be nothing, but he would have been resolved into those principles of which he consisted. That Adam entered paradise after 40 days, and Eve after 80, as Glycas reports in the first part of his Annals. Divine interpreters differ greatly among themselves as they desire to explain what is to be understood by the name of paradise. Let Augustine be heard in Book VIII *On Genesis to the Letter*, chapter 1: "I am not unaware that many have said many things about paradise. Nevertheless, there are three general opinions about this matter: one of those who wish paradise to be understood only corporally; another of those who wish it understood only spiritually; a third of those who accept paradise in both ways, sometimes corporally, sometimes spiritually. To speak briefly, therefore, I confess that the third opinion pleases me." Augustine confesses that he is in this opinion also in his book *On Genesis against the Manichaeans*, and in book XIII *Of the City of God*, chapter 21. Ambrose was also of the same mind in his book *On Paradise*, as was Jerome in epistle 61 to Pammachius and his Commentary on chapter 10 of Daniel, and the Hebrew scholars.

πιπτε πάθεσι σῶμα πάσης ἀπηλλαγμένον φθορᾶς, οὐκ ἐσμὲν ἱκανοὶ, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο παρακαλοῦμεν μαθεῖν. Οὕτω μὲν οὖν, ἐσιώτατε, καὶ τὰ τοῦ Ηρακλείας, εἰ καὶ θεῖα σοφὸς ἦν ὁ ἀνὴρ, ἀμφιβολίαν ἡμῖν οὐ τὴν τυχοῦσαν ἐνίησι. Ταύτῃ τοι καὶ προσφέρειν αὐτὸν ἐπὶ μέσου τό γε νῦν ἔχον οὐκ ἔπρεπε. Τίνος ένεκεν; Οτι τοὺς λόγους ἐκεῖνος ἐπεξηγούμενος ἐν οἷς ἔφθασε περὶ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου διαλαβεῖν ὁ ἐν θεολογία μέγας Γρηγόριος, πῶς τε τὴν πλάσιν ἔσχηκε κατ' ἀρχὰς ἐκ Θεοῦ καὶ οἶας αὐτίκα μετείληχε φύσεως, ὁποῖος τε ἦν καὶ μετὰ τὴν ἔκπτωσιν γέγονε, και οἷας ἔτυχε καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα λήξεως, ἵνα μὴ τὸ κακ ἀθάνατον ᾖ, δύο ταῦτα δίδωσιν ἡμῖν ἐννοεῖν· ἡ ὅτι τῶν θεολογικῶν ἰχνῶν ἀκολουθῆσαι κατόπιν ἐκεῖνος οὐκ ἔφθασεν, εἰ καὶ τολμηρὸν ἡμᾶς οὕτως εἰπεῖν, ἢ ὅτι, τὰ πολλῷ τολμηρότερον, αὐτὸς ἑαυτῷ λοιπὸν ἐναντιούμενος ἦν ὁ μέγας Γρηγόριος. Ἀλλὰ χαλε- παίνειν ἐπὶ τούτοις οὐχ ὅσιον. Εἰ γὰρ καὶ φορτι κοὺς ἡμᾶς οἱ πλείους ἡγοῦνται, καὶ δὴ ἀσυνέτους ἀποκαλοῦσι τοιαῦτα δῆθεν ἀποφαινομένους οὐκ εὐμα- θῶς τὸ δοκεῖν· ἀλλ᾽ εἴ τις ἀκριβῶς ἐξετάσεις πῶς ἄρα καὶ τίνα τρόπον ἐπεξηγήθη τὰ θεολογικὰ ταῦτα ῥητά, τὸ πρᾶγμα κἀκεῖνος θαυμάσειε, κἀντεῦθεν ἡμᾶς ἀπολύσει τῆς αἰτιάσεως. Καλῶς οὖν ὁ μακάς ριος ἔλεγε Παῦλος, Ο λαλών γλώσσῃ προσευχές σθω ἵνα καὶ διερμηνεύῃ. "Ορα γὰρ ὅτι ποτὲ μὲν ἐκεῖνος ἐν τῷδε τῷ λόγῳ πρόσκαιρον εἶναι ἔλεγε κατά γε τὸ σῶμα πρὸ τῆς ἁμαρτίας τὸν ἄνθρωπον ποτὲ δὲ φθορᾶς ὁμοῦ καὶ τῆς ἀφθαρσίας, ὥσπερ οὖν ἀθανασίας καὶ θνητότητος, μέσον εἶναι διετείνετο τὸν πρῶτον ἐκεῖνον Αδάμ, καὶ τοῖς φυσικοῖς ὑπέ κειτο πάθεσιν, ὡς ἂν οὕτω πάσχῃ, καὶ πάσχων ὑπομιμνήσκηται καὶ παιδεύηται τῷ μεγέθει τοῦ νοὸς ἐπαιρόμενος· ἐνίοτε δὲ πάλιν ἄκραν ἔχειν αὐτ τὸν ἀπάθειαν ἔλεγε· καὶ ὅτι τὸ σῶμα τοῦ Αδάμ φθορᾶς ἀπάτης ὑπέρτερον ἦν, ἅτε δὴ τῆς κατὰ χάριν, ἀθανασίας οὐκ ἀμοιροῦν. Οθεν οὐκ εὐπαρά- δεκτα ταῦτα τοῖς ἀκριβῶς τὰ θεῖα κατεξετάζουσι κρίνεται. Καὶ μή μοι τὸν λόγον ἡγοῦ τουτονὶ φορ- τικόν. Εἰ γὰρ οὔτε τοῦτο ἦν ὁ πρῶτος ἄνθρωπος οὔτε ἐκεῖνο, τοῦτ' ἔστιν, οὔτε φθαρτός, οὔτε ἄφθαρ τος, οὔτε θνητὸς οὔτε ἀθάνατος, ὡς ἐκείνῳ δοκεῖ· πῶς αὖθις αὐτὸν ἄκραν ἔχειν ἀπάθειαν ἔλεγε τῆς τε κατὰ χάριν οὐκ ἀμοιρεῖν ἀθανασίας αὐτόν ; Εγω γε τέως ἀμηχανίᾳ συνέχομαι, πῶς εἰς τοσοῦτον ἐλήλυθε διαφωνίας ὁ θαυμαστὸς ἐκεῖνος ἀνήρ· πῶς αὐτὸς ἑαυτῷ κατὰ τὸ δοκοῦν τέως ἡμῖν ἐναντιού- μενος φαίνεται. Εἰ γὰρ οὔτε φθαρτὸς ἦν ὁ πρῶτος Αδάμ, οὔτε μὴν ἄφθαρτος, πῶς ἔπασχε λοιπὸν

EPISTOLA II. Porro, sanctissime vir, etiam ab Heracleæ episcopo, quanquam in divinis rebus sapiente, disputata dubitationem non vulgarem nobis injiciunt. Quapropter illum in præsens adducere in medium non decebat. Quæ est igitur illa dubitatio? Quoniam ille explanans quæ de homine disseruit celebris in theologia Gregorius, quomodo scilicet ab initio effictus sit a Deo, et qualem mox naturam sortitus, qualisque post casum factus sit, et qualem deinde sortem adeptus, ne malum foret sempiternum, hæc duo nobis cogitanda reliquit, aut se theologicis vestigiis non institisse (etsi hoc audacius a nobis dicitur), aut, quod longe audacius est, magnum hunc Gregorium ipsum sibi contradicere. Verum idcirco mihi succensere ^A laud quum est. Licet enim plures nos pro superbis habeant et insipientes vocent, qui hæc nimirum ad fidem, ut videtur, difficiliora affirmemus; tamen si quis accurate inquisierit, quomodo et qua ratione theologicas Gregorii sententias exposuerit, admirabitur, et inde nos accusare desinet. Bene igitur Paulus : Qui loquitur linguis, oret ut interpretetur. Ecce enim in hoc libro aliquando dixit, hominem esse temporarium secundum corpus ante peccatum; aliquando inter corruptionem simul et incorruptionem, sicut inter mortalitatem et immortalitatem, medium primum illum Adamum et naturalibus passionibus subjectum fuisse contenderit, ut ita patiens admoneretur, et de præstantia mentis superbiens emendaretur; aliquando summam ipsum apathiam habuisse, et corpus ejus, omni corruptione superius, utpote immortalitatis secundum gratiam minime expers, fuisse dixit. Hæc divina accuratius perpendentibus nequaquam admittenda ^B censentur. Cave autem arroganter hoc a me dictum existimes. Si enim neque hoc erat primus homo, neque illud; id est, nec corruptibilis, nec incorruptibilis, nec mortalis, nec immortalis, ut illi placet, quomodo rursus eumdem summam habuisse apathiam, et secundum gratiam immortalitatis non expertem fuisse asserit? Equidem præ stupore vix me capio, quomodo admirandus ille vir in tantam discrepantiam devenerit : quomodo, ut nobis quidem videtur, ipse secum pugnet. Si enim nec corruptibilis erat primus homo nec ^C incorruptibilis, quomodo igitur admonitionis et castigationis causa patiebatur? ^D