Selected Questions on Difficult Passages of Holy Scripture

THE BLESSED THEODORET, BISHOP OF CYRUS, ON THE DIFFICULT PASSAGES OF THE DIVINE SCRIPTURE: SELECTED QUESTIONS

PREFACE

Other learned men have indeed undertaken the task of resolving the ambiguous questions of the divine Scripture, so that they might either reveal the meaning in them, or show their underlying causes, or ultimately render clear everything that seemed to the common sort to be rather obscure. ^A You, however, most beloved of sons, Hypatius, have urged me more than all others to perform this task, affirming that this work would certainly be useful to many. For this reason, although I was in fragile health, I did not refuse this labor: not indeed trusting in myself, but in Him who commanded that these things be thus written down. For it is His to demonstrate the sense hidden within the letter. For even in the holy Gospels He taught through parables, and He provided the interpretation of those things that had been spoken more obscurely. ^B Imploring from Him, therefore, the ray of understanding, I shall attempt to penetrate the inner shrines of the holy Spirit. But it must be known, before all else, that not all people have the same aim and purpose in their inquiry. For there are those who inquire impiously, studying to refute the divine Scripture, at one time as if it were enjoining things that are not right, and at another time as if it were teaching contradictory things; others, however, seek with a desire for learning, and yearn to find what is being sought. Therefore, with God’s help, we shall stop the blasphemous mouths of the former, demonstrating the harmony and the excellent teaching of the divine Scripture; ^C and to the latter, insofar as it is possible to attain, we shall provide the explanation of the doubtful questions. ^D We shall take our starting point, however, from the very beginning of creation. For this is the beginning and the preface of the divinely inspired Scripture.

IN GENESIN

^A INTERROGATION I. Why did the author not institute the narrative concerning God before the creation of all things?

RESPONSE. The divine Scripture is accustomed to measure the matters to be taught according to the disciples: and to propose perfect things to the perfect, but elementary things to the uninstructed, and things that are suitable to their capacity. Since, therefore, the Egyptians considered the visible creation to be God, and Israel, having lived with them for a very long time, had imbibed this impiety, it was necessary for those things regarding creation which it is advantageous to know to be proposed to them, and it teaches expressly that it had a beginning, and that it has the God of all as its maker. Yet it did not omit the theological discourse. For while it said that the heaven, the earth, and the other parts of nature were created, and demonstrated that the God of all was the maker of these, it proposed a theology sufficient for those who were then living. For it declared the beginning of the former, but was unable to find the beginning of the latter. And so, knowing God to be eternal, and having named Him the creator of all, and a good creator, he joined with the most wise harmony what is theological with what is physiological. Moreover, those who were taught these things had already learned of the eternity of God. For the divine Moses, having been sent by the God of all into Egypt, was commanded to say to his ^B own tribesmen, "‘He who is’ has sent me to you" (Exod. iii, 14). But that, "‘He who is,’" signifies eternity. It is clear, furthermore, to those who are fond of learning, that those words were spoken before these. For that instruction he presented to them while they were still dwelling in Egypt; but these things he was composing in the desert.

INTERROGATION II. Why does he not mention the creation of the angels?

To those who were being legislated for, he held nothing solid or firm. For immediately after many and ineffable ^C things...

they proclaimed the image of the calf as God. ^B If they so easily fashioned gods for themselves out of the images of beasts, what would they not have done had they received knowledge of the invisible natures? For this reason, until the perfection of Abraham, God, the creator of all things, spoke to no one of the ancients by an angel; but in the case of Hagar, the divinely-inspired Moses first makes mention of an angel. And most appropriately so; for Hagar is a type of the Old Testament, according to the divine Apostle. For he says, "Hagar is mount Sinai in Arabia, and corresponds to the present Jerusalem." Since, therefore, the law was given through angels—for he says, "Ordained through angels in the hand of a Mediator"—and again, "If the word spoken through angels became firm," it was most fitting that God, the Lord of all, should recall both the servitude and predict the things concerning the child who was to be born, by means of an angel.

That angels, archangels, and whatever else is incorporeal, except for the holy Trinity, possess a created nature, divine Scripture clearly teaches us. For the prophet David also encourages these to offer praise: "Praise him," he says, "all his angels; praise him, ^C all his hosts." And teaching the cause, he added: "For he spoke, and they were made; he commanded, and they were created." And again in another psalm: "Who makes his angels spirits, and his ministers a flame of fire." And the three blessed youths in the furnace, weaving the divine hymn and saying that most excellent and most appropriate preamble, "Bless the Lord, all you works of the Lord," soon add: "Bless the Lord, you angels of the Lord, bless the Lord, all you powers of the Lord." But I think it is superfluous to speak more on these matters, since the entire divinely inspired Scripture is full of this teaching.

INTERR. III.

I have considered such questions to be superfluous. For what benefit will it bring to have known when the angels were created? I also know that the divine Apostle enjoins the admirable Timothy to command certain people not to teach strange doctrines, nor to pay attention to myths and endless genealogies. ^D I will, however, say what I believe to be consistent with the design of divine Scripture. I have learned that the divine nature alone is uncircumscribed,

^A seeing that it is uncreated, and without beginning, and eternal. Whatever things, however, have begun to be, it is manifest that they have a circumscribed existence. Therefore, while we affirm that the nature of the angels is incorporeal, we say that their substance is circumscribed. For how could anyone conceive of "thousands of thousands and ten thousand times ten thousand," according to the divine Daniel, unless he considered each one to be in its own circumscription? But that the angels possess a circumscribed substance, no one, I suppose, will gainsay. For even of men, the Lord Christ said that each one has been placed under the guardianship of a single angel ^B (Matt. xviii, 10). "See," He says, "that you do not despise one of these little ones who believe in me; for their angels always behold the face of my Father who is in heaven." Moreover, the divine Scripture affirms that an angel is set over every nation. For the angel who converses with the prophet Daniel speaks of the prince of the Persians, and the prince of the Greeks, and Michael the prince of the Jews. And the great Moses also says in the Canticle (Deut. xxxii, 8): "When the Most High distributed the nations, when He scattered the sons of Adam, He set the boundaries of the nations according to the number of the angels of God." ^C If, therefore, one has been appointed to rule over these, and another over those, and every individual man lives under the care of one, it is evident that they have a circumscribed substance. But if this is true—just as it is indeed true—they therefore have need of place. For the divinity alone, as being uncircumscribed, is not in a place. But if that which is circumscribed is in a place, how could the angels have pre-existed heaven and earth? For when that which supports does not exist, how can that which is supported exist?

[Q]UEST. IV.

But some say that it must be said that the angels existed before heaven and earth. For if the angels, they say, did not exist, how was the God of all praised? But those who say these things do not perceive that by this argument they make them to be without beginning and eternal. ^D For if the God of all had need of those who praise Him, and always had these as praisers, the angels were therefore co-eternal with the God of all. But if they were not always, but when He willed He created them, there was therefore a certain age in which the God of all did not have those who praised Him.

^A For the Lord God has no need of praisers, since He is by nature in need of nothing: but moved only by goodness, He granted existence to angels, archangels, and all creation. But what ministry were the angels exercising, who preceded creation, when there was no one who stood in need of their work? For that they minister to the God of all for the sake of the care of men, the divine Apostle is a sufficient witness, crying out: "Are they not all ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation?" It is clear, therefore, that we indeed need their assistance, but God is in no way needy; yet being an abyss of goodness, He willed to grant existence even to those who were entirely non-existent. But those who maintain that the angels preceded heaven and earth, put forward against us as a strong and unassailable ^B foundation that which was said by the God of all to Job: "When I created the stars, all my angels praised me." And they do not perceive that on the fourth day, together with the sun and the moon, the God of all brought forth the stars. It is likely, however, that the angels were created along with the heaven and the earth, so that by seeing light produced from nothing, and the firmament being made fast in the midst of the water, and the humid substance separated from the land, and the earth adorned with every kind of seedling by the mere word of God, and all other things perfected by the divine will, they might perceive through what they saw that they themselves also have a created nature and have received existence from Him. For the divine Apostle also links them to the world, saying, that "We are made a spectacle unto the world, and to angels, and to men." Yet I do not say these things assertively: for I think it ^C is rash to make pronouncements about those things concerning which the holy Scripture says nothing explicitly; but I have set forth that which appeared to accord with pious reasonings. That, however, it is necessary to know: that all things whatsoever that exist, with the exception of the holy Trinity, have a created nature. But this being granted, if anyone should say that the hosts of angels were created before heaven and earth, he will not offend the word of piety. But to insist upon verbose contentions, "which are to no profit, but to the subverting of the hearers," the divine Apostle expressly forbids.

INTERR. V

If the earth was, how was it created? For the writer says: "The earth, moreover, was." ^D A very trivial and foolish question. For he who said:

^A "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth," did not say that the earth was eternal, but that it was created after the heaven or together with the heaven, having received its existence. Moreover, the writer did not even say it absolutely, "But the earth was," but joined it to what follows: "The earth, moreover, was invisible and incomposite," that is to say, it was indeed created by the God of the universe, but it was still invisible because it was surrounded by water, and incomposite because it was not yet adorned with vegetation, nor had it bloomed with meadows, groves, and cornfields.

INTERR. VI. Did Moses not teach us that God also created the waters?

And yet, having said, "The earth, moreover, was invisible and incomposite, and darkness was upon the abyss," ^B he showed that the nature of the waters was created along with the earth. And the God of all, when legislating about the Sabbath, spoke thus: "Six days you shall work, but the seventh day is the Sabbath, a rest to the Lord your God. For in six days the Lord God made heaven and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them." So that it is clear that everything whatsoever that is within these—whether visible or invisible, whether sensible or intelligible—has a created nature, except for the divine essence. And the most divine David also, having said, "Blessed is he whose helper is the God of Jacob, whose hope is in the Lord his God, who made heaven and earth," added, "the sea, and all things that are in them." ^C

INTERROGATION. Of what light, then, was that place in the world suddenly found to be devoid, so that there was darkness upon the water?

We reason that if anything existed before this sensible world, it was evidently in light. For neither the ranks of the angels nor all the heavenly hosts lived in darkness, but in light and in all spiritual joy. And no one will gainsay this, who expects the supercelestial light among the promises of good things, concerning which Solomon says: "Light is perpetual for the just." And the Apostle: "Giving thanks to the Father who has made us fit for the portion of the inheritance of the saints in light." ^D Since, therefore, the heaven was created at the command of God, having been suddenly stretched out over all things that are contained within its own circumference, and since it has a continuous body, capable of separating the things within from the things outside, it necessarily rendered the place it enveloped dark

^A For three things must concur for a shadow: light, a body, and a place lacking light. Darkness in the world, therefore, came into existence with the shadow of the celestial body.

INTERROGATION VII.

They are indeed contrary to one another, but both are necessary for mankind. For light contributes to the works and labors of men, and makes visible the things that are seen, and prepares us, as it were, to praise the Author of them. Darkness, however, makes man rest and renews him, by releasing the weariness he has contracted from labor. Likewise, it gathers men into their homes, while it provides safety for beasts to graze. The divine David clearly teaches us this: «Thou hast made,» he says, «darkness, and it became night; in it all the beasts of the field will pass by. Young lions roaring to snatch, and seek their food from God. The sun arose, and they were gathered together, and they will lie down in their dens. Man will go forth to his work, and upon his labor until the evening.» ^B Having said these things, he admires the magnificent work of the Creator, saying: «How magnified are Thy works, O Lord! Thou hast made all things in wisdom.» We have therefore learned clearly that darkness is necessary.

But that it is not a substance, but a certain accidental thing, is easy to understand: for it is an adumbration of heaven and earth. Wherefore, when the light rises, the darkness vanishes. But light is a substance and subsists: and when it sets, it rises again; and when it has gone away, it returns. For just as our body is a substance, but the shadow which it makes is an accident, not a substance: so heaven and earth, which are the greatest bodies, are different substances; but the shadow emanating from them, when the light is not present, is called darkness. But light, when it emerges, destroys the darkness. ^C This one might also know from another point: for a house lacking windows is full of darkness. But if a lamp is brought in, it is illuminated, not because the darkness migrates elsewhere (for it does not subsist, since it is devoid of substance), but because it perishes by the arrival of the light. For it is a shadow, which the roof and the floor and the walls form, and which the splendor of the light later dissolves. We see this very thing happen every day. For when the light recedes, the shadow of heaven and earth produces darkness; but when it rises again, this is dissolved. Darkness is, therefore, not some uncreated substance, nor even a created substance: but a certain necessary use, originating from those things which have been made. ^D

and proclaiming the wisdom of God. Behold, the prophet praises the God of the universe even through these things: ^A “Who make light, he says, and prepare darkness” (Isa. xlv, 7). Most aptly has he used each: applying the word "making" to the light, and using the expression "preparing" regarding the darkness. For it is a certain accident, which both subsists and is dissolved. Hence those three blessed children, enticing the whole creation to divine praises, joined the night to the day, and added darkness to the light. For by their successions time is measured, and human life subsists.

INTERR. VIII. What sort of spirit was being borne over the water?

Some think it was the Holy Spirit, who was vivifying and fecundating the nature of the waters, and designating in a certain way the grace of baptism. I, however, consider the truer reasoning to be that it calls the air "spirit" here. For when he had said that God created the heaven and the earth, and ^B had mentioned the waters under the name of the abyss, he necessarily made mention also of the air, which passes through from the surface of the water to the heaven. For it is the nature of the air to be borne and agitated around the bodies lying below. And most aptly has he said "was being borne" (*ferebatur*) and not "rested upon" (*incumbebat*); for that word "was being borne" indicates the mobile substance of the air. But if anyone does not assent to this discourse, because it is written: “The Spirit of God was being borne over the water” (Gen. i, 2), let him hear the blessed David saying concerning the God of the universe: “He will breathe his spirit, and the waters shall flow” (Psal. cxlvii, 7). That he thus called the wind, is manifest ^C even if I say nothing; for when the East or South wind blows, frozen water is accustomed to be dissolved and liquefied.

INTERR. IX. To whom did God say: “Let there be light,” and “Let there be a firmament”?

God does not command some other to create, but calls those things which are not; and here, the command is the will itself. “For all things, he says, whatever he willed, God did” (Psal. cxiii, 11). If indeed he also used some voice, it is manifest that it was not for the sake of the inanimate elements, but for the sake of the invisible powers: so that they might know that, as he commands, those things which are not do subsist.

INTERR. X. Wherefore has the author added, “And God saw that it was good”?

^D That he might persuade the ungrateful not to censure those things which the divine judgment calls good.

INTERR. XI. Is there one heaven, or are there two?

^A Since divine Scripture teaches that in the beginning God created the heaven and the earth, and then, after the creation of light, says on the second day that the firmament was made, this question seems full of ignorance. For it was necessary to recognize the difference between the heavens from the order of time and from the very manner of creation; one being before the light, and the other after the light, and the one not being created from any other matter, but this one from the waters. For it says: “Let there be a firmament in the midst of the water, and let it divide between water and water.” Then, having said that the work followed the word—for this is what “And it was so” signifies—it afterwards teaches how it was made. “And God,” it says, “made the firmament, and God divided the waters which were under the firmament from those which were above the firmament. And God called the firmament heaven.” ^B But the former heaven was not called a firmament, but was named heaven from the beginning. For it received this appellation from the very nature of the thing. Since it was composed of the fluid substance of the waters, and the fluid nature was condensed and solidified, it was named "firmament" (stereoma). Then, because it was placed above and fulfills for us the use of the former heaven, it was named "heaven." For God, the creator of all things, divided the nature of the waters in two: and some He placed up above the firmament, and others He left down below: so that the upper ones, with their humidity and coldness, might not allow the firmament to be damaged by the fire of the luminaries; and the rest, which remained below, might cherish the air with their vapors, as it is parched and dried by the fire above. ^C Therefore, he who does not believe there is a second heaven walks outside the right path; and he who tries to count more follows fables, despising the teaching of the divine Spirit. But divine Scripture names the heavens in the plural, saying: “The heavens of heavens,” because the Hebrew language knows not how to name either heaven or water in the singular number. However, one might find many such things even in the Greek tongue. For no one is accustomed to name the city of Athens in the singular, but rather Athens in the plural. Similarly, no one calls the city of Delphi "Delphos" in the singular, but "Delphi" (Delphous) in the plural. ^D Therefore, divine Scripture has not spoken in the plural as if there were many heavens, but has preserved the idiom of the Hebrew tongue. Since in another psalm, teaching us this more clearly and omitting the idiom of that language, it said: “The heaven of heaven is the Lord’s.” So that it is sufficiently clear that, just as this heaven is a roof for us and the earth is a floor, so the heaven that we see has as its roof the heaven which lies above it.

a Gen. 1, 6. b ibid. 7, 8. c Psal. cxiii, 24.

QUESTION XII.

Why, when He said one "gathering" of waters, does He indicate many afterward? "Let the water," He says, "which is under the heaven be gathered into its gatherings." ^A There is but one gathering of waters, since the seas are joined together with one another, some below through certain subterranean passages, and others along the surface of the earth itself. But He used the plural "gatherings" again because one sea is the Indian, another is the Pontic, and the Tyrrhenian is yet another. And the Propontis is one, and the Hellespont another. And the Aegean is distinct, and the Ionian gulf is yet another. ^B Outside of these, again, lies the greatest sea, which some call the Atlantic, and some the Ocean. For this reason, the Holy Scripture called the gathering of waters "one," as if it were unified, but called them "gatherings" as if they were distinct.

QUESTION XIII.

For what reason did God command the non-edible herbs to germinate?

There are many kinds of irrational animals: some are called wild beasts, others are called cattle; and some are creeping things, others are winged things. God prepared food for all of these, and He created these things, too, for the sake of human need. At any rate, He says that they are nourished for our sake: "For to Him who produces," He says, "grass for the cattle, and herb for the service of men." ^C Therefore, what is useless to the one is very useful to the other, and what is not necessary for humans is suitable for those things which were created for the sake of man. Furthermore, the Lord, foreseeing that humans would fall into diseases, inasmuch as they had received the sentence of death because of sin, commanded the earth to produce herbs, not only for food but also fit for repelling diseases. And someone might know this more accurately from those who have practiced the art of medicine: that even those which seem to be poisonous are remedies for ailments; for when mixed with other herbs, they become antidotes, and providers of health.

QUESTION XIV.

The luminaries having been created, what happened to the prior light? ^D

The Sovereign God is accustomed to create both from non-existence and to fashion from things that exist. For He created the first heaven from non-existence, but the second He made from water. Thus, He brought forth the earth which was not before; and He commanded it to germinate the kinds of trees and seeds. Therefore...

He created the light also as He willed. Just as He divided the nature of the waters by the firmament, and set some above and left others below, so, too, having divided that light as He willed, He fashioned great and small luminaries.

Question XV.

The sun, by its rising and setting, makes the days; but by traversing the southern and northern parts, it completes the annual cycle. This also produces the solstices, which divine Scripture calls "seasons." For when it passes from the equinoctial point to the north, it makes spring; then, returning from there as far as the same limits, it produces the summer solstice; when it proceeds from there to the south, autumn is born; and returning again, it produces winter. From the course of the moon we learn the number of months. For in a course of thirty days, lacking six hours, it completes its own circuit. For which very reason we call the number of such days a "month," since they also call the moon *menen*. ^B However, "for signs" does not mean what we understand according to the opinion of certain fools. For neither Pythagoras, nor Socrates, nor Plato, nor the Stoics accepted that vain debate about the nativity of each person. But if those who have been nurtured on fables detest the impiety of this fable, who that believes in the divine logia would accept these things, not only as impious, but as altogether fatuous? Divine Scripture therefore calls those things "signs," by which we recognize the opportune time for sowing, for planting, for pruning, and for felling trees suitable for the construction of ships and houses. From this source also, those who engage in navigation have learned when it is fitting to haul up or to launch a ship, and when it is necessary to unfurl or reef the sails. For experience has taught them the risings and settings of the stars. ^C Often, too, we ourselves, by this same reasoning, upon seeing a comet, or a bearded star, or a beam, have known of the looming attack of enemies, or an invasion of locusts, or future slaughter of beasts or men. These, therefore, Scripture called signs, not those things full of all senselessness and impiety.

Question XVI.

Animals have eyes, ^D and they could not have endured the excess of light. But the light, when distributed into small and great luminaries, gives back a splendor suitable to the sight of animals. The nature of plants, however, is entirely devoid of sensation.

^A

QUESTION XVII. Why did God not bless the plants, but said to the animals: "Increase, and multiply," and the things that follow?

God, by His own will, immediately filled the entire earth with meadows, crops, and herbs and trees of every kind; but He brought forth the brute animals in pairs. With good reason, therefore, He offered them a blessing, so that by their multiplication some might fill the seas, lakes, and rivers, others the air, and others the earth.

QUESTION XVIII. For what purpose did God create beasts and reptiles?

Children have need of both terrors and straps and rods. By the former we frighten them, and by the latter we instruct them; and we do both ^B to procure for them every propriety. Since, therefore, the Master God observed that we were inclined toward sloth, He prepared beforehand beasts and reptiles as if they were certain straps and terrors, so that, by frightening us with these, He might draw us to Himself and prepare us to call upon Him for aid. But just as those who have reached mature age despise both terrors and straps, so those who have been nurtured in virtue do not fear the incursions ^C of beasts. For truly, to Adam, before sin, the beasts stood by, acknowledging their servitude. And again, to Noah, as he entered the ark, the lion, the leopard, and the most ferocious of reptiles followed like sheep. And to Daniel the lions were present, who, though hungry, did not dare to approach him, because they saw in him a manifestation of the divine image. In the same way, the viper that sunk its fangs into the hand of the Apostle, having found nothing weak or soft within him regarding sin, ^D immediately leaped back and cast itself into the fire, in a certain way exacting punishment upon itself because it had attacked a body in no way suitable to it. We, however, fear the beasts because we do not possess the way of life of virtue. And since God, concerned even for the slothful, assigned them more desolate places and allotted them the time of night for their food—"For in it," He says, "all the beasts of the forest will wander forth" (Ps. CIII, 20)—He gave to the reptiles dens in the earth, so that by hiding in them they might not harm the human race. Yet, lest we should remain altogether unhurt and despise them, as if they were unable to harm us at all, He who wisely governs our affairs sometimes permits two or three out of many thousands to be stung by scorpions, or

^A that we, fearing lest we might suffer something similar, might call upon God the Creator for help, and might beseech Him to guard us with that all-powerful providence. Furthermore, even in other respects, wild beasts are not useless to us. For physicians prepare many antidotes to diseases from them. Let no one, therefore, examining the beast by itself and in isolation, complain against the Creator, but rather let him seek out its use. For the human body also, although it is beautiful, temperate, and endowed with the manifold utility of its parts, is not lacking in mucus, spit, and the foul-smelling excrement which it casts out. Yet no one of sound mind blames the living creature on account of these things. For it is impossible to live without them, and it is through these that it is nourished and flourishes. For it requires phlegm, blood, and each of the biles. But just as it consists through these, so also it perishes through the same. For the excess or deficiency of one of these destroys the living creature. ^B So again, if one were to cut off a single joint of a finger, he would find it utterly useless, but when attached, it provides maximum utility to the body. Thus, therefore, it is fitting for us to act: not to consider the individual parts of nature by themselves, but to look at their utility in the universe. For fire also has the power to burn, and it not only consumes bodies, but also sets houses, ships, and crops on fire. And yet it is one of the four elements of which all things consist, and without it the nature of mortals cannot live. And water similarly inundates the earth, destroys houses, drowns very many who are sailing, and harms even those who do not fear to drink at the wrong time or to excess. ^C Yet no one, unless he be deranged, would call water destructive. For this both irrigates the earth, and nourishes plants, and brute animals, and the very nature of men. In this way, therefore, we also examine each of the other things, not considering it by itself—whether it is harmful or useful—but whether it contributes some utility to the universe. For even wild beasts revere man on account of the authority over them granted to him from the beginning. Sometimes, however, they despise him as a transgressor of the divine law, just as wicked servants are wont to despise those whom they have been ordered by their masters to obey, if they see that they have lost their authority through the commission of crimes. ^D

QUESTION XIX.

To whom did God say: "Let us make man in our image and likeness"?

Certain execrable heretics have said that God spoke these words to the angels and to the wicked demons; the foolish men do not understand what is meant by that phrase: "According to our image." For the essence of God and of the angels is not one, nor is the image the same. For He possesses an eternal nature, while they have Him as their Maker and Creator.

^A And the demons, too, of their own accord have turned to malice. It is, therefore, a mark of extreme madness to suppose that the demons of wickedness and the abyss of goodness possess one and the same image. The Jews, indeed, have turned aside into another form of folly. For they say that the God of all things spoke to Himself, "Let us make man," after the manner of those entrusted with great dominions. For governors ^B and military commanders are accustomed to speak in the plural: "We command, we write, we order," and things of that sort. But these frantic men do not perceive that God of all things usually speaks in the singular number. "For the season," He says, "of every man comes before me," (Gen. VI, 13) and, "It repents me that I have made man," (ibid. 7) and, "I will blot out man." Item: "There shall be no other gods for you besides me," (Exod. XX, 3) and, "Behold, I do new things, which shall now arise," (Isa. XLIII, 19) and, "I will open fountains upon the mountains, and rivers upon the hills." (Isa. XLI, 18) And in the entirety of the divine Scripture, one may almost always hear the God of all things speaking in the singular. ^C Only rarely does He form His speech in the plural, when He is indicating the number of the persons of the Trinity. For when He confounded the languages, He did not say in the singular, "I will descend and I will confound the languages," but, "Come, let us descend and confound their languages." (Gen. XI, 7) In this place, therefore, since God was forming a rational living creature, which He was to renew after many generations through the invocations of the holy Trinity, by establishing the most holy baptism, since He was about to create the nature that would receive those mysteries, He obscurely revealed both the identity of the substance and the number of the persons. For in saying, "God said," He signified the commonality of the divine nature; but by adding "Let us make," He intimated the number of the persons. Similarly, when He said "image" again in the singular, He showed that the nature is one. For He did not say "according to images," but, "according to image." ^D Yet by saying "our," He manifested the number of the hypostases. For God, who foreknows all things that have not yet come to pass as if they were already done, and who foresaw that the Only-Begotten would assume flesh and human nature, and that He would take this nature from a Virgin, and thus join and unite it to Himself, so that one person of God and man is understood, and one and the same adoration is deferred to Him by all creation: for a just cause He deemed this [nature] itself, as the foundation of the race, worthy of the greatest honor; and He placed the deliberation before the creation, that He might indicate beforehand the rational element of the creature being made; that by revealing the number of the persons, that he who was about to offer hymns

and praises upon the earth might grasp the enigmas of theology. And as if He were the immediate author of the formation, He showed greater affection for the creature. This is precisely what the valiant Job also cries out to Him, saying: "Thy hands have made me and fashioned me." llbracketA The divine David also employed these words, and indeed he who is counted worthy of holy baptism knows clearly that He who fashioned has saved, and He who saved has fashioned. Furthermore, the Creator Himself says through Jeremiah and Isaiah: "For we are clay, and Thou art our potter." But we do not say that the Divine nature has hands, or that it is in need of counsel or premeditation so that, according to the fables of Plato, it might construct its work according to the idea it has conceived; rather, each of these expressions manifests the greater care of God for this living being.

INTERR. XX. What is that: "according to the image"?

Some have called the invisible part of the soul the image of God; but they have not spoken rightly. llbracketB For if the invisible part of the soul were the image of God, angels and archangels, and all incorporeal and holy natures, llbracketC would be called images of God much more, inasmuch as they are altogether rid of bodies and possess a nature that is invisible and unmixed. Some, through great simplicity, say that the human body was made "according to the image of God," because they hear the divine voice saying: "Open thine eyes and see, and incline thine ear and hear"; and, "The Lord smelled a sweet savor"; and that: "The mouth of the Lord has spoken these things"; and: "In His hand are the ends of the earth," and such like. And those utter fools did not perceive that the Lord God, speaking through men to men, adapts His words to the weakness of those listening. And because we see through eyes, Scripture calls His visual power "eyes"; and again, the auditory power it calls "ears," because it is through these parts that we hear; and the commandment of God, it calls "mouth." But they ought not to have listened only to these words, but also to those which teach that God is uncircumscribed. "For whither," He says, "shall I go from Thy Spirit, and whither shall I flee from Thy face? If I ascend into heaven, Thou art there; if I descend into hell, Thou art present," and what follows. And to the Samaritan woman the Lord said: "God is a Spirit, and they that worship Him must worship in spirit and truth." If then God is a Spirit, He is therefore simple, and incomposite, and receives no form. ^D But it is superfluous to lengthen this discourse; for the folly of these people is evident. Therefore, some of the teachers have understood this passage, "Let us make man according to our image and likeness," in this way: that when the God of all had created the sensible and the intelligible creation, He fashioned man last, having placed him as a kind of image of Himself in the midst of inanimate and animate, and sensible and intelligible things, so that the inanimate

^A might provide him with use as if it were a kind of tribute, while the intelligible natures, in their care for him, might demonstrate their good will toward the Creator. For the divine Apostle also said this: "Are they not all ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation?" [*] And the Lord in the Gospels: "See that you do not despise one of these little ones who are least. For I say to you, that their angels daily see the face of my Father who is in heaven." [b] Some, however, said that man was created "to the image of God" in accordance with the capacity for ruling, using a very clear proof from the fact that the Creator added: "And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the sky, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over all the creeping things that creep upon the earth." For just as He Himself holds dominion over all things, so He gave to man authority over the irrational animals.

But it is also possible to find other things that are imitations of the archetype. For man also acts as a creator, in imitation of God who made him, creating ^B houses, and walls, and cities, and harbors, and ships, and dockyards, and chariots, and ten thousand other things; for instance, representations of the sky, and of the sun, and of the moon, and of the stars, and lifelike images of humans, and statues of irrational animals. However, there is an infinite difference in the manner of creation. For the Creator of all things creates both out of what is and out of what is not, and without labor or time; for it is simultaneous with His willing that He produces what He pleases. Man, however, needs matter, and needs tools, and counsel, and thoughts, and time, and labor, and other arts for the construction of what is being made. For the builder needs the coppersmith, and the coppersmith ^C the metalworker and the charcoal-burner; and all together need the woodcutters, and the woodcutters need the planters and the farmers; and in this way each art borrows its own need from other arts.

But even so, in creating, man mimics the Creator in some way, as an image does the archetype; for indeed the image possesses the outward forms of the archetype. But it possesses the form of the members, and not the activities; for it is deprived of the soul, through which the body is moved. So again, man also rules and judges in imitation of the God of all things. But God requires neither accusers nor witnesses when He judges; for He condemned Cain in such a way as one who had become an eyewitness of the transgression. ^D Man, however, when judging, needs witnesses and accusers, for he is ignorant of what has been done. Thus man was also called a god, since he was named the image of God. For, he says, "A man ought not to cover his

^A head, being the image and glory of God." But the God of all possesses a divine nature, not a mere name; whereas man, as an image, has only the name, being deprived of the reality. Thus, being uncircumscribed belongs truly ^B and properly to the God of all; yet the human mind mimics this in a way, for in an instant it travels over the East and the West, the North and the South, the heavenly things and the subterranean, not in substance, but only by the imagination of the intellect. But God possesses the uncircumscribed character in substance, in wisdom, and in power. One might also find another, more precise imitation in the human soul itself; for it possesses both the rational and the vital in itself. And the mind, indeed, generates the Word, and the Spirit proceeds with it, not generated as the Word is, but always accompanying the Word and proceeding with it as it is generated. But these things exist in man only as in an image; for this reason, both the word and the spirit are unsubstantial. But in the holy Trinity we understand three hypostases, united without confusion, and existing in themselves. For the God Word was begotten of the Father before the ages, yet is inseparable from the Begetter; and the all-holy Spirit proceeds from God the Father, and is understood in His own hypostasis. "For all these things," He says, "the one and selfsame Spirit works, dividing to each one individually as He wills." But one must not speak at greater length about these things; for it is possible to find infinite proofs of this in the holy Scripture. ^C

DIODORUS. Some have thought that man was created according to the image of God because of the invisible power of the soul, not understanding that an angel is also invisible, and likewise a demon. To them it is necessary to reply thus: that among men, male and female, according to both body and soul, have attained the same nature. Why then did Paul call the man the image of God, but not the woman, if man is the image of God according to the rational part of the soul? For he says: "For a man, indeed, being the image and glory of God, ought not to cover his head; but the woman is the glory of the man." If, therefore, he who ought not to cover his head is the image of God, it is clear that she who is covered is not the image of God, although she is a partaker of the same soul. How, then, is man the image of God? According to authority and power. ^D And the very voice of God seems to bear witness to this, which says: "Let us make man"

in our image, and according to our likeness. ^A And adding the manner, "And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and the birds of the air, and the beasts of the earth," and the rest. Just as God is the ruler of all things, so also is man the ruler of those things upon the earth. What then? Does the woman not also rule over the aforementioned things? But she has man as her head, while holding authority over the others; yet the man is not subject to the woman. For this reason the blessed Paul rightly says that man alone is the image and glory of God, but the woman is the glory of the man.

THODORE. Just as if some king, having built a very great city and having adorned it with many and varied works, after the completion of everything, commanded that his own image, very great and most beautiful, be set up in the midst of the whole city, as an indication that the city was founded by him, which it would therefore be necessary for all the inhabitants to honor as the image of the king who founded it, having gratitude in this way toward the author of the city because he granted such a dwelling-place to them—so also the Creator of the creation has made the whole world, having adorned it with different and varied works; and in the last place, he brought forth man in the rank of his own image, so that all creation might appear to be joined in service to the need of man. ^B For it is evident that the composition of fruits consists of air, and earth, and water, and the heavenly bodies which the heaven bears upon itself; and while the enjoyment of these is necessary for all men, a small portion of them has been distributed to the irrational creatures, appointed for the service of men. And as for the airy powers, that they all serve the divine will for our benefit, the blessed Paul teaches, saying: "Are they not all ministering spirits sent forth to minister for the sake of those who are to inherit salvation?" It is manifest, therefore, that God, wishing to fashion one world from this whole, and desiring to bring into one whole every creature composed of different natures—mortal and immortal, rational and irrational, visible and invisible—appointed man as the bond of all; ^C having gathered all things to him by necessity in such a way that the entire creation is joined together in him, and he himself is a clear pledge of friendship to all. For this reason, then, He gave him both soul and body: the one visible and appropriate to visible things, composed of earth and air and water and fire, and nourished by the fruits produced from these; but the rational and immortal [soul]

is joined to the invisible and rational ones, in order that creation might not be connected to Him by need alone, but rather by the affinity of nature. Nay rather, [it is] in order that through the affinity according to nature, all things might be connected to His need, laboriously offering aid and service to one who is related and akin.

And after other things: But it strongly moves me to marvel at those who have not been able to grasp these things, but who have said that man was created in the image of God, partly on account of rule and authority, partly according to the power of reasoning, and partly according to the intellect, putatively asserting things full of laughter; ^B when they ought to have observed that man alone is said to be the image of God. For in his creation, Scripture says: "Let us make man in our image." And again in the history of Noah, it is said that "in the image of God He made man." And the blessed Paul says: "A man ought not to cover his head, since he is the image and glory of God." If then man alone among all creatures is the image of God, it is clear that since he alone is so called, there must be some peculiar reason for this denomination, not only on account of the intellective or rational faculty, of which we say the invisible powers are also partakers; indeed, neither on account of the faculty of ruling, which we perceive to belong to the invisible powers as well, just as the blessed Paul says: ^C "For in Him were created all things that are in heaven and that are in earth, visible and invisible, whether they be Thrones, or Dominions, or Principalities, or Powers." And in another place: "That now unto the principalities and powers in heavenly places might be known." Whence he also calls the contrary powers so, as having fallen from those orders. "For we wrestle not," he says, "against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world."

So also angels are called [by such titles]: "And Michael," he says, "your prince, and the prince of Persia." It has also been said concerning the luminaries: ^D "The greater luminary for the dominion of the day, and the lesser luminary for the dominion of the night." Which David called power, saying: "The sun for the power of the day, and the moon and stars for the power of the night." How then could it be that man should be called the image of God according to any of those things which are common to many creatures, when nevertheless he alone is said to have been made to the image of God? Therefore it is manifest to us that there must be some certain reason why he alone...

is thus designated, a reason in which none of the creatures share, since they do not even share in that designation. It is that which I have already mentioned.

ORIGEN. ^A We must first discuss where the phrase "to the image" consists: in the body or in the soul? And let us first observe those whom the proponents of the former view employ; among whose number is Melito, who left behind writings in which he asserts that God is corporeal. For when they find members of God spoken of—the eyes of God looking upon the earth, and his ears being inclined to the prayers of the just; and, "The Lord smelled a sweet savor," and, "The mouth of the Lord hath spoken these things," and the arm of God, and ^B hands, and feet, and fingers—they immediately infer that these teach nothing other than the form of God. "But how," they say, "was God seen by Abraham, and by Moses, and by the saints, if he has no form?" And if he has a form, what kind of form, if not human? And they heap up a thousand passages in which members of God are spoken of. Against these, one must contend first from the diction of Scripture; and we oppose to those who know nothing beyond the letter, the words of Scripture that are contrary to their opinion: from Zechariah, saying, "The seven eyes of the Lord look upon ^C all the earth." But if God has seven eyes, and we have only two, we have not been created to his image. But neither are we endowed with wings, yet it is said of God in the Ninetieth Psalm, "Under his wings you shall hope." But if he has wings, and we are creatures without wings, man has not been made to the image of God. And how can the heaven, since it is spherical and always revolving, be the throne of God, as they suppose? Moreover, how is the earth the footstool of his feet? Let them explain this to us. For does the body that extends from the knees to the soles of the feet comprise this space which lies between ^D heaven and earth, while the earth is in the middle of the whole world, and is contained by it, as is demonstrated by linear proofs? Are the feet of God among us, or among the antipodes? And do they fill our entire world, or do they comprehend something more or less? Are his feet parted by the seas and rivers, or do they even stand upon the waters? And how is he, whose throne is only heaven and whose footstool is the earth, found walking in the lone paradise, or appearing to Moses on the top of Mount Sinai? And how shall anyone who thinks such things about God not be called a fool? Then, after many things which he says for the subversion of such an opinion, he adds: "But he who asserts that the phrase 'to the image' does not consist in the body, but in the rational soul, will establish a doctrine which is not to be despised, by comprehending what the faculties of the soul are. For the cognitive faculty which is in man..."

^A is powerful and entirely capable of accomplishing every good thing; it has been made according to the image of God. That the image is characterized by actions, and not by the form of the body, the Apostle clearly states in his Epistle to the Corinthians: "As we have borne the image of the earthly, let us also bear the image of the heavenly." For he who lives according to the flesh bears the earthly image and does the works of the flesh; but he who by the Spirit puts to death the deeds of the flesh bears the image of the heavenly. And in another Epistle, teaching how one ought to live, he adds to the commandments: "That you may be according to the image of Him who created [you]." The Lord is long-suffering, and the long-suffering man possesses the image of God. The Lord is just and holy, and merciful and compassionate. Therefore, he who loves justice and holiness, and acts and keeps this commandment of the Savior: "Be merciful, as your Father also is merciful," and "Be perfect, just as your heavenly Father is perfect," becomes in all things an image of God.

"And let them have dominion," he says, "over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heaven, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over all the reptiles creeping upon the earth." It must be observed that it is passed over in silence, not that all animals were created for the sake of man, but only those over which he is said to have dominion: the fish of the sea, the birds of the heaven, and the cattle of the earth; perhaps also the reptiles of the earth, on account of the most necessary uses of the medicines which are prepared from them. However, those great sea-monsters and the beasts of the earth were not created for man. ^B Otherwise, if power over these animals had also been given to man, their names would have been added. But we do not find in Scripture the species of serpents placed among the reptiles, but among the beasts; for, it says, "The serpent was more crafty than all the wild beasts." And in the Acts of the Apostles: "A viper, which had bitten Paul, hung from his hand." And it adds: "But the barbarians seeing the beast hanging." But in Leviticus, see among which things he places the reptile, such that in no way does he count them among those which are now called by that name in general custom. "These," he says, "you shall eat from every winged reptile that walks upon four feet, which has legs above its feet, with which it leaps upon the earth. And these you shall eat from them, the bruchus and its like, and the locust and its like, ^C and the attacus and its like, and the ophiomachus and its like." ^D

^A Every creeping thing of the birds, which has four feet, is an abomination to you; and you shall be defiled by them. 36 Therefore, man does not rule over those great beasts nor over the wild animals, which perhaps were not created from the beginning for his sake. And something similar to what is described here, as being subject to man's dominion, is said in the eighth Psalm: "You have put all things under his feet, sheep and all herds, and furthermore also the cattle of the field, the birds of the heaven, and the fish of the sea, those that pass through the paths of the seas." Even here, ^B both sea monsters and wild beasts are passed over in silence.

INTERR. XXI. Why did God bless the seventh day above the rest?

Each of the other days received a certain creation of its own. Since, therefore, God had completed all creation up to the seventh day, instead of a creation, He granted the seventh day the blessing, so that it alone among the others might not remain without honor. However, the expression, "He sanctified it," He has set down as meaning "He set it apart." For often in the divine Scripture one can find it understood in this way. For He says even about the Medes, "They are sanctified, and I am bringing them," that is, they are set apart for this. Moreover, writing these things to the Jews, He necessarily placed the expression, "He sanctified it," so that they might render greater reverence to the Sabbath. For this He also said when giving the law: ^C "In six days the Lord your God made heaven and earth, and on the seventh day He rested from all His works which He made, and sanctified it."

THEODORE. "And God finished on the sixth day His works which He had made, and rested on the seventh day," and the rest; showing that on the sixth day He had indeed brought all things to completion, as He was about to add nothing new to them, since He did not deem that anything was lacking in them, but ceased to act on the seventh day. For this reason He added this day as a day of rest, in which He created nothing at all, so that by that rest during the day it might be certain that by Him all things were made perfect. ^D For he who on the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth day had always created something new, which he deemed missing from the creation, it is manifest that for this reason he ceased from acting on the seventh day, that by the rest of the seventh day he might declare the creation to be perfect. Whence also with seven days

he encompassed the entire cycle of days, though he could have done this in six, in which he completed the creation; so that the six might be a manifestation of the things that exist, while the seventh might signify that all things had attained their end, and that nothing was wanting to them anymore. Then, lest anyone should think the seventh day useless and superfluous because God did no work on it, and lest it should be thought detestable to all, or as having merited no divine operation—for someone might easily suspect that as if it were a perhaps unsuitable day, He chose to do nothing on it, as is the custom with some to consider days of lesser importance as days to be passed in idleness—lest anything of the sort should be assumed regarding the seventh day, he added: ^B "And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it." For he showed that He did not consider the day useless for producing, but established it as appropriate for rest. He blessed it, therefore, seeing that He had honored the others by what was produced within them, while this one He honored by its being a proof that the creation was completed. For this reason, he said, "and sanctified it," instead of saying "He set it apart for this purpose," so that by the cessation on it, the end of the creation might be demonstrated.

QUESTION XXII.

In summary, the author once again recounted the things pertaining to the creation; and he taught that it was God who brought forth elements that were not in existence, and that He separated these from one another, and that He adorned each of these as He willed, and that while neither man was tilling the earth, nor the clouds were laboring with rain, it sprouted as He who created it willed, having as irrigation the moisture and vapor that remained with it after the separation of the waters. For thus also did Aquila interpret: "And an upwelling rose up from the earth and watered the whole surface of the ground."

DIODORUS. He wished to say this, that the earth was created unadorned. For it had produced nothing of those things which God later commanded to be produced. Seeing that there was neither man in existence to till the earth, nor had rain been brought down, as this ordinance had not yet received its beginning. Whence also, adding the reason, he says: "But a fountain used to rise up from the earth," and the rest. For he says...

VARIOUS READINGS FROM THE LIPSIAN CATENA

for it ^A that it was entirely covered by the waters. He says this in such a way as if the waters were welling up and springing forth from the earth itself, and being carried from the whole of it, and thus covered it entirely.

Q. XXIII. If the soul was created from the divine insufflation, is the soul therefore from the substance of God?

Such an opinion is one of extreme impiety and blasphemy. For by this, divine Scripture has demonstrated the ease of creation. Furthermore, it also subtly indicates the nature of the soul: namely, that it is a created spirit, invisible and intellectual, devoid of bodily density. And this must also be considered: that one must first grasp the concept of the lungs, and the muscles that compress and constrict them, and the palate, and the mouth, and the trachea naturally joined to the lungs, and only then receive the insufflation in this way. But if God is incorporeal, the insufflation must be understood in a way befitting God. ^B

Q. XXIV. For what reason did God plant the paradise, when He was about to expel Adam from there immediately because of sin?

In the first place, the Lord God is not accustomed to condemn on the basis of foreknowledge. Therefore, although He foresaw the transgression, He nonetheless bestowed good things upon him. Secondly, He wished for him to recognize the divine favors, so that, being deprived of them, he might hate the sin which had stripped him of such great goods. Furthermore, it was fitting for the just judge of the contest to set forth the prizes of victory for the athletes of virtue. For which reason He also said regarding the Kingdom: "Come, ^C you blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world."

Q. XXV. Some say that paradise is in heaven.

Since the divine Scripture says: "And God made to spring up from the earth every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food," it is excessively audacious to follow one's own logic and abandon the teaching of the Spirit. DIODORUS. "And God planted a garden in Eden in the east." Some say that Eden itself is called paradise; others, that it is the whole region in which the paradise also was, from whence also Adam was formed, and that Adam was named from having been born from the earth in Eden. For they say that Edom ^D is...

red, just as Esau also, being red, received the name from the red lentil and his own birthrights; and this is more true.

^A INTERR. XXVI. Are the tree of life, and the tree of knowing good and evil to be understood according to the intellect, or according to physical sense?

The divine Scripture indicates that these trees also sprouted from the earth; therefore, they do not have a nature different from other plants. For just as the wood of the cross is wood, and is called saving on account of the salvation that comes into being through faith in it, so too these are plants that have sprouted from the earth; but by divine decree, one of them was named "the tree of life," and the other, because the perception of sin came into being through ^B it, was called "the tree of knowing good and evil." And for this one, the struggle was set before Adam; but the tree of life was set before him as a kind of prize for having kept the commandment.

In this way also the patriarchs gave names to places and wells. And one they called "the well of vision," not because it granted the faculty of sight, but because the Lord of all appeared at it. And "the well of room," because the people from Gerar, who had frequently fought over other wells, did not harass those who had constructed this well. So also "the well of the oath," because the oaths were taken at it. Thus Luz was named Bethel, that is, "house of God," because the Creator ^C of all appeared to Jacob in that place. And "the hill of witness," not because the hill was living, but because they made their covenants with one another at that place. In like manner, baptism is called "living water," not because the water of baptism has a nature different from other water, but because divine grace grants eternal life through that water. Thus also the "tree of life" was named by divine decree, and the "tree of knowledge" because the perception of sin began to be from it. For since they had not yet had the experience of sin, and then had tasted the forbidden fruit, as violators of the commandment, they felt the stings of conscience.

^D INTERR. XXVII. Did they, therefore, not have the knowledge of good and evil before they had partaken of the forbidden fruit? And how was it possible that those who were adorned with reason, and had been created according to the divine image, did not have the discernment of good and evil? How, indeed, would they...

^A have legislated the law of justice, to those who did not possess such knowledge by nature, and did not understand that it is good to keep the command, but ruinous to transgress it? Therefore, they undoubtedly possessed the knowledge: but they later received the experience.

QUESTION XXVIII. How, then, after the eating, did they know that they were naked, who before the eating had experienced no such thing? Small children are not accustomed to blush when stripped of their clothing; but as the body gradually grows, and the mind subsequently begins to manifest its own nature, adults no longer patiently endure being naked, but blush and cover themselves. And if someone removes their clothing, they hide their genital parts with their hands. ^B However, the custom of life helps many to abolish this shame. Indeed, sailors sailing naked, and those who bathe, while they see one another naked, are not moved by this shame there. But if someone is naked outside the baths, he blushes intensely. Thus must we judge concerning Adam and his wife: who, immediately when they were formed, like infants and those newly born, and polluted by no stain of sin, were not affected by shame while living without garments. But after the trial had taken place, they covered certain parts of the body with leaves.

THEODORET. Since, while they were still sewing the leaves together, they heard the voice of God walking about, they hid under the tree, clearly no other than the one from which they had plucked the leaves. ^C This was the tree concerning which they had received the command. For as the prophet says: “They were hidden in the midst of the tree of paradise.” But when they had eaten from it, they were also weaving leaves together, because they were ashamed of their nakedness. And these were fig leaves. Therefore, without controversy, that tree was a fig tree upon which they had received the command. But some do not agree with this, due to excessive simplicity, as it seems to me: for they think that it must have been some new kind of tree, not considering that sins are not judged by the quality of the wood, nor by the novelty of the food, but by the command given: the transgression of which, however small, is worthy of equal censure. ^D

QUESTION XXIX. How does it come about that Moses asserts that the Tigris and the Euphrates flow from paradise, whereas some say they spring from the mountains of Armenia? It is possible to see other rivers also emerging from elsewhere; then, through certain subterranean passages, flowing into the earth, and again bubbling up from above. This also happens in the case of these rivers. For they emerge from there, as the divine Scripture says;

then, passing through certain subterranean channels, they take other sources here. The God of all did not ordain this in such a way in vain, but to cut off the excessive meddlesomeness of men ^A. For if their entire course were manifest, some people would surely have tried, by following their banks, to catch sight of the region of Paradise. They would have failed in their desire, however, and, exhausted by the length of the journey and suffering from a lack of necessities, they would have fallen, now into impassable regions, now into deserts, and sometimes they would have fallen into the hands of cruel and barbarian men. Therefore, the merciful God, foreseeing these things, has made their channels unknown.

QUESTION XXX.

The Creator of nature wished to bring each gender into harmony. For this reason, He formed Adam from the earth, but the woman from Adam—that He might both demonstrate the identity of their nature and implant in them a certain natural mutual affection. For if, with things as they are, men contend with women and women with men, what would they not have done had He formed the woman from somewhere else? Wisely, therefore, He both separated them and joined them together again. ^B For marriage unites the genders into one: "For they will be," He says, "two into one flesh." And that this is true, what is born from them bears witness. For through the marriage union, one fruit arises from both, seeded by the man, nourished by the woman, and brought to completion by the Artificer of nature.

QUESTION XXXI.

Many names are used equivocally; for even the idols of the nations have been called gods. This, however, is more properly said of the demon who worked through it. But the foolish, in their ignorance, have even called those who have studied fables "wise." Thus also divine Scripture says: "God chose the foolish things of the world, that He might put to shame the wise." And again: "Where is the wise man?" And through the prophet: "They are wise to do evil." ^C Therefore, even here He called the serpent "prudent" in the sense of crafty and wily. For thus also Aquila has interpreted: "And the serpent was more wily than all the animals of the field, which the Lord God made." ^D

^A QUES. XXXII. Since the serpent lacks the faculty of speech, how did it speak to Eve?

It was an instrument of the enemy of truth. And the Lord declared this in the divine Gospels. For when He said to the Jews, "You are of your father the devil," He added, "He was a murderer from the beginning." Therefore, the devil spoke to Eve through the serpent. For since they had received from the God of all things dominion over all irrational creatures, the devil set a trap for her by means of one of the creatures subject to her, thus making his deception more persuasive by such an approach. That the divine Scripture calls the one who acted through the serpent "the serpent," the prophet Isaiah is witness, crying out: "In that day God shall bring His holy, great, and strong sword upon the monster the serpent, the crooked and strong; upon the monster ^B the serpent, the fugitive, which is in the sea." And the Lord also said to the holy disciples, "Behold, I have given you authority to tread upon serpents and scorpions, and upon all the power of the enemy."

QUES. XXXIII. What is, "The eyes of both were opened"?

That they did not have their eyes closed even before they ate is clear to those who wish to attend. For how would the woman have seen the tree, that it was good for food, and pleasant to the eyes to look upon, and fair to contemplate, if they did not have their eyes opened? Therefore, the divine Scripture has called the perception that followed sin by this name. For ^C immediately after sin, the conscience is pricked.

QUES. XXXIV. Why is the serpent punished, since it is the devil who deceived?

God properly brought the curse upon the one who did the evil. For that one, too, was called "serpent," not because he received such a nature from the God of all things — for he was created good and was formed together with the incorporeal powers — but when he voluntarily turned toward wickedness, he was then deprived of the honor which he had possessed from the beginning, and was cast down to the earth. But also, the animal itself received the curse for the benefit of ^D humanity. For seeing the serpent crawling upon the earth, we remember the ancient curse; and we learn...

how great an evil sin is, for it causes harm not only to those who commit it, but also to those who serve it. And the serpent himself receives no harm from this, being naturally fashioned to move in this way; for it has such a mode of movement by nature, and nothing natural seems to be burdensome. But man derives much benefit from this.

INTERROGATION XXXV.

This very thing one could also say regarding man: for God foresaw that he, too, would transgress the commandment. Besides, it was an easy matter for the devil to effect the deception through the ministry of another beast. ^B

INTERROGATION XXXVI.

God created the entire nature of the incorporeal beings, rendering it rational and immortal; and it is proper to the rational nature to possess free will. Of these, some preserved their benevolence toward the Creator, while others inclined toward wickedness. This too can be found among men: for some are lovers of virtue, while others are workers of iniquity. If, therefore, anyone complains about the creation of the wicked, he thereby deprives the athletes of virtue of the prizes of victory. For if they did not have the desire for virtue in the choice of their own will, but were immutable by nature, the noble athletes of piety would remain unknown. But since the will has the option of good and evil, these deservedly obtain the crown of victory, while the others pay the penalties for what they voluntarily committed. ^C

INTERROGATION XXXVII.

In the first place, those who have resolved to live piously ought to be persuaded that everything that is done or commanded by the God of all is holy, just, good, and instituted for the benefit of humanity. For if we confess that He possesses all these, there is no doubt that what is ordered or commanded by Him must be thought to be of such a nature. Then, it must be known that every law, even regarding small ^D matters...

^A stands with equal force to that which orders or forbids the greatest things: and this is especially true of every divine law. For instance, he who transgresses the law that commands circumcision does no harm to his neighbor. Nevertheless, the lawgiver says: “Every uncircumcised male, whoever is not circumcised on the eighth day, shall be cut off.” And the punishment which He appointed for murderers and adulterers, this same He allotted to him.

But since it is probable that the infamous heretics, those who openly war against the ancient Scripture, will reproach this law, I shall demonstrate it from the evangelical legislation. For we find in those laws that he who has looked upon a woman with lust is guilty of fornication; and he who is angry without cause is liable to judgment; and he who calls his brother "Raca" is held to account; and he who calls him "fool" is deserving of hell; and he who swears, even if he swears truly, becomes a companion of the devil. Why, then, do they call this Lawgiver of the gospel good, but the author of the ancient law harsh? For by their own standard, these [evangelical] laws are more cruel than those. But it is their blasphemy that dares such things. We, however, have learned that both these and those laws were given by one God; but the quality of the things legislated caused the difference. For as a wise teacher, He proposed imperfect things for the imperfect, and perfect things for the perfect.

Furthermore, it must be observed that for the first transgressors of the laws, punishments were inflicted without pardon, so that others, seeing the chastisement, might not dare to commit the transgression. This also happened regarding the legislation of the Sabbath; for the one who had dared to gather wood on the Sabbath, and who was the first to transgress the law on this matter, all the people stoned ^B. For God had commanded this, so that those who had taken punishment upon the guilty with their own hands might thereafter dread transgressing the law, as being the cause of punishment. But a long time later, when many had violated the law regarding the Sabbath, the Lawgiver bore the transgression with patience. Thus, too, He subjected Cain, who was the first murderer, to inexpiable punishment, so that both those who were then living and those who were born afterward might not dare to perpetrate such things. Yet in later times, although there were many murderers, He did not immediately inflict punishments.

It was fitting, therefore, that Adam, who was the first to receive a law, and a most light one at that—for God had given him the abundance of every kind of fruit, and had only forbidden the eating of one—should pay the penalty of the offense, for the benefit of the human race. But if God were irascible, as that execrable Marcion said, and had inflicted the punishment of death for a small morsel of food, how is it that when all men had slipped into impiety and extreme transgression, He did not inflict extreme punishments, but gave His own Son, and through the cross and passion...

brought about salvation? And I say this to those who imagine that the God of the universe did these things moved by some wrath, and who are ignorant of the mystery of the dispensation; for it is clear, I think, to those who have been instructed in divine things, that the God of the universe is not accustomed to doing anything out of repentance; for this passion ^A is peculiar to those who have a mutable nature, and who are pleased now with these things, now with those, and are completely ignorant of what is to come. But the God of the universe has an immutable nature; and He knows things not yet come to pass as if they had already happened. Therefore, foreseeing and foreknowing that Adam would become mortal having transgressed the commandment, He prepared his nature beforehand in such a way; for He fashioned the formation of the body into male and female; and such is the construction of bodies for mortal ^B beings that are in need of procreation for the preservation of the race. For the immortal nature has no need of the female sex; for this reason the Creator brought forth the number of incorporeal creatures at once. But of mortal animals, He created each kind in pairs, male and female; and He bestowed upon them the blessing of increase. "Increase," He says, "and multiply, and fill the earth, and have dominion over it." Foreshadowing these things, then, the God of the universe not only fashioned them thus, but also gave them the law concerning eating. "Behold," He says, "I have given you every seed-bearing herb that is upon the face of the earth; and every tree which has in itself the fruit of seed-bearing tree, it shall be food for you, and for all the beasts of the earth, and for all the birds of the heaven, and for every reptile creeping upon the earth that has in it the soul of life; and every green herb I have given you for food." ^C For God, the God of the universe, said these things to Adam before the commandment. But for a mortal creature, food is necessary; for an immortal nature is not in need of nourishment. Teaching this, the Lord also said, that "after the resurrection they neither marry, nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels in heaven." Punishment, therefore, does not at all proceed from wrath, but it is a dispensation of the highest wisdom. For the all-wise God, after the transgression of the commandment, brings forth the sentence of death so that the human race might hate sin as having become the cause of death. By this means, acting against sin, but preparing for the race the medicine of salvation, that through the incarnation of the Only-Begotten, [He... ^D

^A through the resurrection from the dead, and through immortality, he might procure it. And what severity is there in this sentence: “You are earth, and to earth you shall return”? From earth, He says, I fashioned you, and I advanced you to a nature far better; but since you would not keep my commandment, return to your former nature. Does the sin seem light to you? He had given him authority over all the plants, but had forbidden the eating of only one alone. But he, leaving behind all the others, plucked the fruit of this one first and only. For the Lord God reproached him with this, saying: “Who, He says, told you that you were naked, if you have not eaten of the tree from which I commanded you alone not to eat?” The devil also revealed this through what he said to Eve: “Why did God say, you shall not eat of every tree that is in Paradise?” For if he had seen that they had eaten, he would not have thought that the commandment had been given to them concerning all the trees. Therefore, the transgression is not small. For they partook of the first [and only] thing of which they were commanded not to partake. ^B

QUESTION XXXVIII.

For what reason, since God said: "In the day that you eat of the tree, you shall die the death," did he not die immediately upon transgressing the commandment?

This is a contrary accusation. For a little while ago you called God cruel, and now you accuse Him of benevolence. But it would have been more fitting to praise rather than accuse the goodness of God. For He is accustomed to threaten greater things, but to inflict punishments less than the threats. And this can be found in many places in the divine Scripture. Here, however, He named the state of mortality "death"; for so also did Symmachus interpret: "In the day that you eat of the tree, you shall be mortal." For after the divine sentence, he awaited death, so to speak, every single day. Thus, those who have believed in the Lord Christ, even when they are slaughtered, live, awaiting the resurrection and the kingdom of the heavens. "For by hope we were saved." (Rom. VIII, 24) ^C

QUESTION XXXIX.

What is to be understood by the garments of skin?

Those who allegorize say that the skins are the mortal flesh; others say that they were fashioned from the bark of trees. But I, for my part, accept neither of these. The one is overly curious, the other too fabulous. For since the divine Scripture says that the body was fashioned before the soul, how is it not ^D

^A a thing to say that after the transgression of the commandment they took on mortal flesh? But to inquire curiously whence God obtained skins, and for this reason to imagine a new kind of covering, seems to me superfluous. We must, therefore, embrace what is written, and know that nothing is difficult or impossible for the Creator of all; and we must admire his infinite goodness, in that he cares even for those who have transgressed, and, having need of a covering, he did not overlook that they were naked.

THEODORET. The question arises: what are the "garments of skin"? For if the garments were made from slaughtered animals, it is clear that the race of slaughtered animals would have failed, since God shortly before had created male and female, and no offspring had yet come into existence. Furthermore, no one can suppose that God commanded animals to be slaughtered when the eating of meat was not yet permitted to humans. Much less is it fitting for us to suppose that God brought into being things that did not exist; for when man was created, he ceased to create anything that did not exist, as if concluding in this the creation of the whole universe. It is clear, therefore, that God did not create "garments of skin" out of nothing. But perhaps those who seek such things are ignorant, as is likely, that "skins" ^B are not only said of those things which are stripped from animals, but also of those from trees, which the common people are accustomed to call "barks." Therefore, Adam fashioned garments from trees having barks suitable for the making of clothing, with God suggesting to his mind how this should be done.

ORIGEN. What ought we to understand "garments of skin" to be? It is very foolish, indeed an old wives' tale, and altogether unworthy of God, to think that God took the skins of some animals, slaughtered or having died in some other way, and by sewing those skins together, after the manner of a tanner, made them into the form of tunics. Again, in order to avoid this absurdity, to say that those garments of skin are nothing else than bodies is indeed plausible and effective at eliciting agreement, but it is not clearly true. For if the garments of skin are flesh and bones, how is it that shortly before this, Adam said: ^C “This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh”? ^D Being overwhelmed by these difficulties, some have asserted that the garments of skin are mortality

the death with which Adam and Eve were clothed, having been put to death by sin, they declared to exist. And even they themselves are not able at all easily ^A to demonstrate how God, and not sin, produces death for the transgressor. Besides this, they are compelled to say that flesh and bones by their own nature are not corruptible, if indeed our forefathers received the condition of mortality later on account of sin. Moreover, if paradise is a divine place, let them explain how each of the members there, not created in vain, exercised its own activity. Regarding, then, that which is called "nose" by Aquila and Symmachus, but "face" by the Septuagint, concerning the formed one into whom God breathed the breath of life; it must be said that one ought not to cling to the naked letter of Scripture as if it were the truth, but to seek the treasure hidden in the letter.

QUESTION XL

What is that: "Behold, Adam has become as one of us"? ^B

Since the devil said: "You will be as gods, knowing good and evil," and Adam had received the sentence of death because he had transgressed the commandment, God, the God of all, said this ironically, demonstrating the falsehood of the devil’s promise. But God also forbade him from taking from the tree of life, not because He begrudged man eternal life, but because He was checking the course of sin. Therefore, death is a medicine, not a punishment. For it restrains the impulse of sin. "For he who has died," it says, "has been justified from sin." But God ordered him to dwell opposite the Paradise ^C so that, calling to mind the painless life, he might hate sin as the author of a laborious and wretched life.

THEODORE. He does not call the Cherubim some invisible powers, as some suppose; since an invisible nature would have contributed nothing there, whereas a sensible vision was needed to instruct Adam. Therefore, neither was the flaming sword essentially fire, but of such an appearance; nor were the Cherubim animals, but they appeared as such. Since even Ezekiel sees the Cherubim having four faces; yet an invisible nature does not have a quadruple face. But he calls "Cherubim" all that is powerful. Thus he says, "The ^D

^A "Who sits upon the Cherubim," that is, who reigns powerfully; and: "He ascended upon the Cherubim and flew," that is, he arrived with great power. Therefore, "And he placed the Cherubim," he said, so as to indicate a certain powerful and terrible vision and form, as though of certain animals, placed at the entrance of Paradise, so that Adam might be barred therefrom.

QUES. XLI.

QUES. XLII.

QUES. XLIII.

man He molded from the earth; and from him He created one woman; and from these He filled the entire inhabited world of the race. For this cause, therefore, He permitted in the beginning the intermingling of brothers; but after the race had increased, He forbade this marriage as unlawful. For this reason, along with Noah and his sons, He preserved their wives in the ark, so that their children might be joined to their cousins. ^B

INTERROGATION XLIV. Who did Lamech kill?

INTERROGATION XLV. To what place did the God of all move Enoch?

INTERROGATION XLVI. Why, when Adam had sinned, did the just Abel die first?

^A was slain [without sin], it rests upon a shaky foundation.

INTERROGATION XLVII. Who are those whom Moses called the sons of God?

Some who are exceedingly stupid and foolish have supposed these to be angels, perhaps thinking they would find a defense for their own intemperance if they could hold angels as guilty of the same crime. Yet they ought to have heard the God of all saying: "My Spirit shall not remain in these men forever, because they are flesh; and their days shall be one hundred and twenty years [r]; and from this to perceive that the nature of incorporeal beings possesses no flesh, nor do they have a life limited to a definite time; for they were created immortal. And what follows falls under the same meaning. "For seeing," he says, "the Lord God, that the wickedness of men had multiplied upon the earth, and that everyone in his heart intently contemplated evil all his days (44), and God repented that He had made man upon the earth. And God said, I will blot out man whom I have made from the face of the earth, from man to beast, and from reptiles even to the birds of heaven, because I repent that I have made them [r']." And again He said to Noah: "The end of all flesh has come before me. Because the earth is filled with their iniquity, behold I destroy them and the earth [s]." Now all these things indicate that these were men who had embraced a wicked life. But if angels had mingled with the daughters of men, the men would have been wronged by the angels, for clearly they would have corrupted their daughters by force; and they would also have been wronged by the God who had created them, in that they themselves would have been punished on behalf of angels who had been lustful ^C. But I do not think that even the father of lies himself would dare to say these things. For the divine Scripture has taught through many examples that men had sinned, and that the divine judgment had been passed against men. But most people fall into ignorance because they read the divine Scripture carelessly. For when Moses had related how Seth was born from Adam, and Enos from Seth, he added: "He hoped to call upon the name of the Lord God [t]." Aquila, indeed, translated this in this way: "Then it was begun to be called by the name of the Lord (49)." That statement indicates that, on account of his piety, this man was the first to obtain a divine title, and was called God by his kinsfolk; ^D whence also those who were born of him were called the sons of God.

^A Just as we also are called Christians from the name of the Lord Christ. But if anyone does not accept this understanding, because this interpretation proceeded from Aquila, let him hear God speaking through the prophet David: “I said: You are gods, and all of you the sons of the Most High” (Ps. LXXXI, 6). And: “God stood in the synagogue of gods; and in the midst he judges gods” (ibid., 1). For thus he names the princes and magistrates, as the following verses declare: “How long will you judge unjustly, and accept the persons of sinners? Judge for the orphan and the needy, do justice to the humble and the poor” (ibid., 2, 3), and what follows. And again: “The God of gods, the Lord, has spoken, and has called the earth” (Ps. XLIX, 1). Namely, those who have been deemed worthy of this grace of appellation. Thus also the legislator says: “You shall not speak evil of gods, and you shall not curse the princes of your people” (Exod. XXII, 28). They, therefore, were also named sons of God, as being pious and good. ^B For the race of Seth was separate, and was not mixed with the lineage of Cain, because of the curse brought upon it by the God of all. But after a long time had passed—for God brought the deluge after more than two thousand years—seeing that the daughters of the race of Cain were beautiful, and being enticed, as is likely, by the musical instruments devised by them (for Jubal, who was sprung from them, had discovered the psaltery and the harp), they mixed with them and defiled their own nobility. And they suffered the same things as the Israelites, who mixed with the daughters of the Midianites, and became partakers of their impiety, and suffered divine retribution. Concerning these, the divine David said: “And they were mingled among the nations, and learned their works, and served their carved images” (Ps. CV, 35, 36). ^C Thus also those who derived their lineage from Seth, formerly indeed, as being studious of virtue, were called sons of God. But, captivated by the beauty of the impure women, they confounded families otherwise distinct, and instead of a hereditary fruit, received a common destruction. This, however, must be noted, that the divine Word does not simply condemn their sin, but reprehends the iniquity sought out with care and zeal. For this is what is signified by the saying: “Each one meditates in his heart studiously to perform evils every day” (Gen. VI, 5). For those who are vexed at the temptation of sin offered to them, yet are overcome through the sloth of the mind by wickedness, and afterwards grieve ^D and lament, have a certain moderate excuse to some extent. But those who decline altogether to intemperance and malice, making the reason subservient to the passions, so that they even devise other species of iniquity, and this not once or twice, but per—

[alt-version omitted]

VARIE LECTIONES EX CATENA LIPSIENSI. et quæ reliqua sunt ex hac sectione, exstant in cap. p. 135.

NOTE. (50) Recepta lectio cod. Vaticani æque ac Alex. est ἄρχοντα. (51) Cod. et Pic. παρὰ καρπόν.

καρπόν. ^A declaring as they do, so as to devise even other forms of wickedness, and this not once or twice, but throughout their whole life; of what indulgence are they worthy? And what punishment is not light for those who have thus given themselves over to destruction?

INTERR. XLVIII. Whom does Divine Scripture call giants? Some say they are those who lived many years. Others say they are the God-hating and anti-divine men. Those who have understood it in this way do not say that these had bodies larger than other men. ^B But I, when I hear Divine Scripture saying of Enac that ‹he was a descendant of the giants› (52), and concerning Og that ‹his bed was of iron, having a length of nine cubits and a width of four cubits,› and that this one ‹remained of the Raphaim›—seeing also the scouts reporting that ‹we were in their sight as locusts›—and God confirming these remarks, saying, ‹I have delivered the Amorite into your hand, whose height was as the cedar, and he was robust as the oak;› and concerning Goliath, that ‹he had a length of four cubits and a span,› I believe that there actually were some men of huge stature. God also wisely ^C directed this, that they might know that it is not because the Creator is weak that He allotted such a stature to men—for it would have been easy for Him to create even larger men—but that, by suppressing the swelling of pride and checking arrogance, He did not give men the largest bodies. For if, endowed with small bodies, they rise up not only against each other, but against God the Creator, what would they not have committed if they had been allotted the largest bodies?

INTERR. XLIX. Why did the ancients live for a long time? So that they might increase in number over a longer period of time. For this reason, they also took many wives. Thus, even after the flood, up to the times of the patriarchs, they were long-lived. But after ^D they had filled the earth, the number of years was subsequently reduced.

INTERR. L. Why did He destroy the multitude of men with the flood? He wished to blot out the offspring of Cain; but because the tribe of the pious had become mixed with it, it was for that reason a participant in the punishment. For God, wishing to make a certain beginning of a new life, preserved Noah himself and his children with their wives: Noah, I say, a pious and just man,

^A born of the race of the pious, and who hated the mingling of iniquity with extreme hatred. But it was not, as some say, that God did these things led by some wrath and repentance. For these are human passions, from which the divine nature is entirely free. Moreover, repentance is appropriate for those who learn the nature of things after the trial; for those who do not know what will come to pass, consult beforehand, and then, after the event teaches them that they have not deliberated correctly, they are led to repentance. But God ^B sees things that will be after many generations just as if they had already happened. Since, therefore, He foresees and knows beforehand, He regulates all things accordingly. Why, then, does He repent, when He arranges all things according to His own foreknowledge? Therefore, in God, repentance is a change of dispensation. For it says: "I repent that I have

constituted Saul king,

QUESTION LI. What did the beasts eat in the ark? It is clear that they ate hay and seeds. For God said to him: "But you shall take for yourself of all"

the foods which you shall eat, and you shall gather them to yourself, and it shall be for you and for them to eat." He also legislated the same thing for humans to eat: "For behold," he says, "I have given you every seed-bearing herb sowing seed which is upon all the earth; and every tree which has in itself the fruit of seed-bearing sowing, shall be for you for food, and to all the beasts of the earth, and to all the birds of the sky, and to every reptile creeping upon the earth, which has in itself a living soul, and every green herb for food." ^A Thus it is manifest that both humans and animals abstained from the eating of flesh, but used for nourishment the fruits growing from the earth. That which is "sowing seed," Aquila interpreted as "producing seed."

QUESTION LII

The divine Scripture speaks as is expedient for humans, and adapts its modes of speech to the capacity of the hearers. Just as, therefore, repentance in God is a variation of administration—for, "I repent that I have anointed Saul as king," ^B means instead, "I have resolved to set another in his place"—so here also it must be understood: "I have considered that I made man," instead of, "I have resolved to bring total destruction upon them." And so, this phrase, "God remembered Noah," does not imply a prior forgetfulness, but denotes his supreme humanity; because, out of his affection for him, he commanded that that infinite and immeasurable water be drained as quickly as possible. And to make the ineffable goodness of his nature manifest, he added, "And that he also remembered all the herds, and all the birds, and all the reptiles which were with him in the ark." ^C But he deigned to care for these also for our sake: which that great David also proclaims: "Who brings forth grass for the cattle, and herb for the service of men." And again: "You shall save men and cattle, O Lord." For it is also for our sake that he cares for what is ours.

QUESTION LIII

He accepted the readiness of Noah’s mind, not having been pleased by this odor—for nothing smells worse than burning bones—but praising the intention of the one who made the offering. For God does not have bodily parts, ^D so that we might attribute noses to him, for smelling is done through nostrils.

^A And so he rewards him with a blessing; and since he was the seed of the race, and the root of nature, and the second Adam, he grants to him the blessing which he had enjoyed immediately when he was created. "Increase and multiply, and fill the earth, and have dominion over it. And the fear and trembling of you shall be upon all the beasts of the earth, and upon all the birds of the air, and upon all things that move upon the earth, and upon all the fish of the sea, which I have placed under your hand." And the word has become deed; for all things fear even the very shadow of man, both the swimming, and the land-dwelling, and the winged creatures. Then he gave him the law concerning the eating of meat, commanding him to enjoy meat just as he had enjoyed herbs.

QUESTION LIV.

QUESTION LV.

and ^A permitted their consumption, that he might check that impiety. For it is the height of folly to worship what is eaten. For this reason, He calls some animals unclean and others clean, so that they might shrink from the former as unclean and not deify them, and might not worship the latter which are eaten.

QUESTION LVI. Why is Noah not reproved for having become drunk?

The passion originated from inexperience, not from intemperance. For he was the first man to press the fruit of the vine, and being ignorant ^B not only of how much ought to be drunk, but also of the manner of partaking—namely, that it must first be mingled and then drunk—he fell into drunkenness. And that he was stripped naked, he suffered nothing new. For even today some are stripped while sleeping, as sleep steals away their sensation; but when drunkenness is added to sleep, it provides a more persuasive excuse for the nakedness.

QUESTION LVII. Since no law had yet been passed commanding one to honor father and mother, how is Ham condemned as guilty of parricide?

The Creator has established the necessary laws through nature. Thus He condemned Cain, ^C because nature itself taught him that murder is against the law. Hence he, having used guile as an accomplice, led his brother far away from their parents and killed him; and when God asked, "Where is Abel, thy brother?" he denied it. It is clear that, knowing the deed he had done was evil, he denied that he had committed the crime; but, being refuted by the just Judge, he confessed that he had sinned more grievously than to deserve pardon: "For my iniquity," he says, "is greater than that it may be forgiven me." But indeed, even Adam, when he perceived the divine presence, attempted to hide, as knowing that to steal is evil; ^D so too did Ham receive the accusation of parricide as having transgressed the law of nature. For that nature itself taught that one ought to honor and revere one’s parents, the brothers of Ham bear witness: for when they had learned from him what had happened to their father, they went backward with much modesty and covered their father, so that they might not behold the source whence they had been begotten and sprung. And therefore, very deservedly, they also reaped the blessing of their father.

ORIGEN. Why does Scripture, when it had said, "And the sons of Noah who went out from the ark were Shem, Ham, and Japheth," add, "And Ham himself is the father of Cha-

-^A naan"? If it were necessary to mention the sons, it should have been necessary to mention all of them, and not Chanaan alone. Chanaan himself also became impious, as the history declares. The divine Spirit, therefore, wishing to show the likeness of the father to the son, in a way separates him from the piety of his brothers, adding, "Ham is the father of Chanaan." For while all were by birth sons of Noah, this one alone was not a son in character, but the father of a son like himself. Wherefore it is set forth emphatically, "He is the father of Chanaan."

The Hebrew man who said these things also brought forward such a tradition, and supported the tradition with proof: that Chanaan was the first to see the nakedness of his grandfather, and reported it to his father alone, mocking the old man as though he were a fool. But Ham, instead of acting properly like his brothers—not approaching his father impiously, but rather rebuking the one who had seen it first and was mocking him—was himself persuaded, and went in, and saw, and reported it to his brothers. But these things would seem to be a fable, if it did not have the power of proof in what follows. "And Noah awoke," he says, "from his sleep, and knew all that his younger son had done to him." For Ham was not his youngest son, but the second. For it says, "Shem, and Ham, and Japheth." If he had wished to point to the smallest, he would have named Japheth. But since grandfathers always call their grandchildren sons, and even those born in a long line of descent are accustomed to be called sons, Scripture says that Chanaan, the smallest of the descendants, was known by Noah to have been the author of this crime. And that this is so, the divine Discourse immediately adds, saying: "Cursed be Chanaan; he shall be a servant of servants to his brothers." If anyone wonders why Ham, being himself also impious, did not receive the same curse as his son, let him know that if it had been said to Ham, "He shall be a servant of servants," his brothers would also have partaken in the slavery, just as the brothers of Chanaan became ^B servants according to the curse, of whom Chanaan was declared the servant.

QUESTION LVIII.

Why, when Ham had sinned, did his child receive the curse?

When the flood had ceased, all equally partook of the divine blessing. Therefore Noah considered it a rash thing to bring a curse upon one who had attained the divine blessing; for this reason he directed the curse to that one's child,^C the one who had manifested ^D the likeness of his father.

^A And the punishment has its own justice. Since he was a son and sinned against a father, through the curse of his son he pays the penalty. Moreover, one should observe this further point: if Ham himself had received the curse, the punishment would have passed upon the whole race; but he ^B directed the chastisement to his youngest son. One must also know that these words of the righteous man are not a curse, but a prophecy; for since Israel, tracing its descent from Shem, was destined to receive the dominion of Palestine, which those who had descended from Canaan had inhabited long before, he frames the prophecy in the form of a curse, both predicting future events and deterring those who would come later from sinning against their parents. Clarity on this point is provided to us by the blessing of Shem: "Blessed," he says, "be the Lord God of Shem, and Canaan shall be his servant." ^C For he did not subject him to two, but to Shem alone. And while he predicted multiple offspring for Japheth, for Shem he predicted piety; for he foretold that God would dwell in the tents of Shem. And He did indeed dwell among the patriarchs who were descended from Shem, and among the prophets who sprang from them; in the tabernacle at first, and later in Jerusalem. The prophecy achieved its most precise fulfillment in the mystery of the dispensation, when God the Word Himself, the only-begotten Son of God the Father, became flesh and became man, and named as His own temple the flesh which He took from the seed of David and Abraham. For they too traced their lineage from Shem. And the servitude of Canaan reached its end with the Gibeonites.

QUESTION LIX. ^D Some of the teachers have stated that bitumen is quicklime.

Those who are ignorant, as is likely, of the springs existing in Assyria, imagined that the tower was built with quicklime. But I have diligently learned from those who come from there that there are springs which pour forth this material together with water; and that by adapting it for the construction of buildings, they join the fired brick with it, and in this way they say the tower was built. Eyewitnesses also affirm that they have broken off some small piece and have recognized clearly that bitumen was spread under the fired bricks; they assert that there is otherwise a shortage of stones in Assyria, and for that reason they use bricks instead of stones. But indeed, without stones, how could quicklime be produced?

Q. LX. Which language is more ancient?

^A The names themselves indicate it. For Adam, and Cain, and Abel, and Noah, are proper to the Syriac language. For it is the custom of the Syrians to call red earth *adamtha*. Therefore Adam is interpreted as either "earth-born" or "dusty"; and Cain as "possession." For Adam, praising God, said: "I have gotten a man through God" (Gen. iv, 1). And Abel is the same as "mourning," for he was the first to be seen dead, and first brought mourning to his parents; and Noah is "rest."

Q. LXI. Whence, then, did the Hebrew language begin?

I believe it to be a sacred language. For just as in the temples of the Greeks there were certain peculiar characters of letters which they called "sacred," ^B so God, the Lord of all, gave this language through Moses—it being a language that is learned, not natural. Therefore, while all others speak in the language of the nations among whom they were born—those born in Italy using the tongue of the Italians; those in Greece, the tongue of the Greeks; those in Persia, of the Persians; and those in Egypt, the tongue of the Egyptians—it is impossible to find any Hebrew children who use the Hebrew language immediately, but rather the language of those among whom they were born. Then, when they have grown a little older, they are taught the characters of the letters, and they learn from the letters the divine Scripture written in the Hebrew tongue. And I believe that the blessed David hinted at this in the eightieth ^C Psalm: "A language which he had not known, he heard" (Ps. lxxxi, 6). But some say that the Hebrew language is so named after Heber, for they say that he alone remained in the primordial language, and from that fact they were called Hebrews. But I believe they were called Hebrews because the patriarch Abraham, when he came to Palestine from the land of the Chaldeans, crossed the Euphrates River. For in the Syrian language, *Ebra* is called "one who crosses over." But if the Hebrews were named after Heber, it would not have been fitting for them alone to be called so; for very many ^D nations trace their origin from Heber. And as for all the remaining...

from him are the Israelites, and those from Keturah, and the Idumaeans, and the Amalekites, and the Moabites, and the Ammonites, and those who inhabit Carrhae; for they trace their lineage from Nachor and Laban. But none of these uses the Hebrew tongue. In this way, however, Abraham himself was also called [a Hebrew]. And the divine Scripture is a witness. For after the captivity of Lot, one arriving, it says, announced it to Abraham the "perates" (the crosser). But I found this set down in Hebrew as "Hebri." And "Hebri," when hellenized, becomes "Hebrew." For indeed in that passage where the Egyptian woman said regarding Joseph: "You have brought in to us a Hebrew servant that he might mock us," it is written as "Hebri" in the Hebrew. But it is superfluous to contend about this. For no harm comes to the cause of piety from it, whether we accept this or that.

QUESTION LXII.

Some say that Pharaoh had relations with Sarah.

Of what care, then, was Abraham to the God of all, if He saw his lawful wife violated by adultery and neglected it? Why, indeed, did He afflict Pharaoh and his entire house with great and savage torments if He did not wish to restrain that lawless union? But Pharaoh himself even puts forward his ignorance as a defense; and he complains to Abraham for having called his lawful wife his sister; and he teaches that he did not receive her to treat her with abuse, but wishing to marry her. "For what is this that you have done to me," he says, "that she is your wife? Why did you say, She is my sister, and I took her to myself as a wife? And now, behold your wife before you; take her and go." And not only did he say this, but he also performed it, and deemed him worthy of every kind of providential care. "For Pharaoh commanded men concerning Abraham," it says, "to escort him, and his wife, and all things whatsoever he possessed." It is clear, therefore, that immediately upon Sarah being snatched away, the Ruler of all bound Pharaoh with a disease which broke his lust.

VARIOUS READINGS FROM THE CATENA LIPSIENSIS

^A brother’s wife. And let no one imagine that at that time wives were much younger than their husbands. For let him hear Moses saying: “And Abraham fell upon his face, and spoke, and said in his mind, saying, Will a child be born to one who is a hundred years old? And to Sarah who is ninety years old, will she give birth?” It is found, therefore, that Aran, whom Moses mentions last when he was numbering those born to Tharra, was so much older than Nachor that his daughter became the wife of Nachor. And if he does not mention the elder first, it is clear that he places Abraham first as being most perfect, since also for his sake the story itself was the more necessary. But Nachor is middle, and of middle age; for wherever he wishes to show who is the firstborn, he necessarily follows the order of their ages; but wherever there is no need of this, he puts the more honorable one first, even if he be the last. And as the story has it, Sarah also happened to be the daughter of one of the brothers of Abraham, as he himself says: “For truly she is my sister, but by my father, not by my mother.” Just as somewhere or other he also calls Lot, being the son of his brother, his brother. It is likely that after the brother Aran had passed away, the brothers took the daughters; as neither Tharra nor they themselves could bear to leave them behind in Chaldea when they were setting out for Charran.

^A And as a hunter having prey within his nets could not enjoy the catch, because his illness did not permit it.

INTERROGATION LXIII. For what reason did Scripture here remain silent about Sara having been kept unharmed, whereas in the account concerning Abimelech it clearly declared this?

Sara was then about to give birth to Isaac. In order, therefore, that the seed of Abraham might not be suspect, the divine Scripture clearly declared there that Abimelech had not touched her. From both instances, however, one must learn that nature has taught even the Barbarians that adultery is wicked and deserving of punishment. ^B And indeed, Pharaoh declared this by chiding Abraham; and Abimelech spoke to the God of all: "Lord, will you destroy an ignorant and righteous nation? Did he not himself say to me, 'She is my sister'? And did she not say to me, 'He is my brother'? With a pure heart and with justice of hands I have done this." The author has also set down the response of God. "He says, for God said to Abimelech in a dream: 'And I also know that you have done this with a pure heart, and I spared you from touching her, so that you would not sin against me. For this reason I did not allow you to touch her. Now, therefore, give the woman back to the man, because he is a prophet, and he will pray for you, and you will be saved, you and all your house. But if you do not give her back, know that you will die.'" The divine word teaches us that God does not allow those who love justice, who are about to sin out of ignorance, to do so. It is clear, therefore, that He prevented Pharaoh also from sinning, who, as if she were a sister, had taken Abraham’s lawful wife to himself in marriage. But because Abimelech was, as is likely, better than Pharaoh, He restrained him from sinning by way of punishment; but to the latter He granted no forgiveness for the insult and the offense, but waited for him to seek it from the one who had been wronged. With a merciful apparition, moreover, He followed him, and with gentle words He pointed out the transgression that had been dared. "And Abimelech said to Abraham: 'What did you see, that you did this thing?' And Abraham said: 'For I thought, perhaps there is no piety in this place, and so they will kill me on account of my wife. And indeed she is truly my sister by a father, but not by a mother. For she is indeed my sister, inasmuch as she is the daughter of my father, but she is not the daughter of my mother.'" ^{C D}

'"

INTERR. LXIV. Whence did Melchizedek derive his lineage?

^A When that divine Apostle says: "Without father, without mother, without genealogy," who can know the truth of this matter? It is likely, however, that he was from those nations that inhabited Palestine. For he happened to be both king and priest over them: and a priest of the God of all. For it says: "He was a priest of the Most High God." Hence also the patriarch Abraham offered him tithes of the spoils; and being righteous, and a friend of God, he received the blessing from him. For he bore the type of the Lord’s priesthood. Therefore, he also gave back bread and wine to Abraham, as one who was accustomed to offer such things to the God of all. For it was necessary that in this, too, the type should be revealed. ^B

INTERR. LXV. How is Abraham called faithful, when he said to God: "Whereby shall I know this, that I shall possess it?"

That "Whereby shall I know this" is not the mark of one doubting, but of one desiring to learn the manner of the possession. For since he saw many thousands of men inhabiting Palestine, he wished to learn by what means he would receive the dominion of that land: by right of war, or without war; whether while those people were living, or after they had been destroyed or entirely driven out. For this reason, once the sacrifice was finished, the God of all said: "Know that thy seed shall be a sojourner in a land that is not their own, and they shall subject them to slavery, and they shall afflict them, and they shall humble them for four hundred years. ^C But the nation whom they shall serve, I will judge. And after these things they shall depart hither with great substance; but thou shalt depart to thy fathers in peace, nourished in a good old age. But in the fourth generation they shall return hither, for not yet are the iniquities of the Amorites filled up until now." From the divine response, it is possible to know the [true] form of the inquiry. Since he said, "Whereby shall I know that I shall possess it?" he was taught how long those who were to be sojourners would remain, and how they would be afflicted, and of how much providence they would be deemed worthy—those who wished to make war upon them being punished, and they themselves enjoying their goods—and that Abraham, having received no experience of these things, would depart from this life in peace. ^D He taught, likewise, the reason for the delay, so that no one might suppose that, on account of the vast number of the inhabitants, the Lord God was unable to deliver that land to them.

the dominion of that land. He said, however, thus: *“For the iniquities of the Amorites are not yet fulfilled even until now”* (Gen. xv, 16). They have not yet, he says, committed deeds worthy of total destruction; for it is not fitting that punishment be brought on before the sin, based on foreknowledge. That there were pious men at that time is evident from Melchizedek, and Abimelech, and those who inhabited the land of Hebron. For those men held the patriarch in great honor; and one can hear them crying out: ^A *“You are a king from God among us. In our choicest monuments bury your dead”* (Gen. xxiii, 6).

INTERR. LXVI. *Why did God command a three-year-old heifer, and a three-year-old ram, and so forth, to be sacrificed?*

These were riddles of things that were to happen to the race. Indeed, after the sacrifices, he added: *“Knowing you shall know that your seed will be a sojourner in a land not its own”* (Gen. xv, 13). And he added: *“But in the fourth generation they shall return hither.”* For this reason, he commanded that three of the clean four-footed animals, each three years old, be sacrificed, ^B as an indication of the three generations that would continue in sojourning. The turtledove indicated that generation which, having gone out of Egypt, as it were flew away and settled in the desert; for this bird is a lover of the desert. The dove pointed to the other generation which received the promised land; for this animal is gentle and domestic. For this reason, he did not divide these [birds], as they signified the release from slavery. But he divided the four-footed animals, because they signified how badly they were to be treated in Egypt. And the birds of prey that were flying down upon the divided ^C pieces, which the patriarch was driving away from the offerings, signified the murderous intent of the Egyptians, which the Lord God rendered ineffectual, confirming the promises made to Abraham; for just as in the type Abraham drove away the carnivorous birds, so the honor of Abraham chastised the Egyptians. Moreover, the fact that a smoking furnace and lamps of fire were seen at the setting of the sun signified both that the sacrifices were accepted and also foreshadowed the appearance of the God of all at the end of the foretold time. For he appeared by fire ^D to Moses the lawgiver, and after that to the whole people. He was teaching, in addition to these things, that later these animals would be ordained by the law to be offered. Some, however, say that God, wishing to show that the promise was firm, made the covenants according to the prevailing custom. For it is the custom, as they say, for those who divide the sacrifices in two to make oaths in this manner. I, however,

have set forth both, so that each may accept whatever seems more true to him. ^A

INTERR. LXVII. Many intemperate people take occasion for their own licentiousness from the fact that the patriarch Abraham had a concubine.

Every deed is judged by the intention of those who perform it. Let us therefore contemplate also the matters concerning Agar in this way. If we were to see the patriarch enslaved to desire, we would call the act reprehensible. But if his wife, declaring the infirmity of her own nature and saying that her womb had been made sterile by the Creator, and explaining how greatly she was possessed by the desire for children, requested Abraham for that reason to be joined with Agar, so that she herself might receive children from her, what did Abraham sin? Especially since neither nature nor any written law at that time forbade taking multiple wives; and the wife herself, being sterile, besought her husband to mingle with the handmaid, not so that he might serve pleasure, but that he might be called a parent by nature, and she by adoption. For that that divine man was superior ^B to base pleasure, not only these things, but also what followed, bear witness. For when Agar became pregnant, she took from it an occasion for pride and behaved with great insolence toward her mistress; because of this, Sara was distressed and complained to the patriarch not unjustly. But he, bearing the insolence most patiently, and not waiting until the handmaid had delivered the child she carried in her womb, handed her over to his wife to be disciplined. "Behold," he says, "thy handmaid is in thy hands: do with her as thou pleasest." ^C

VARIÆ LECTIONES EX CATENA LIPSIENSI.

The generations were indeed signified by the animals prepared; but by the three-year-old [animals], the youth of the people, still at their prime, was signified. And the heifer, being the first taken, reasonably signified the first generation; for just as the heifer is untamed, being inexperienced in the yoke, so also was the first arrival of the people who descended into Egypt kept free from the Egyptian hard labor. But the goat was taken second, after the heifer, because it foreshadowed the second generation. For just as the goat provides little revenue to its masters, but nonetheless does provide some, so also the second arrival of the people in Egypt, if not great, still provided slavery to the Egyptians. The ram, brought forward third, clearly signified the third generation; for the ram gives greater revenue to its master from itself; and likewise, the Egyptians profited most from the third generation of the Israelities. The turtledove, moreover, along with the pigeon, denotes those who went out of Egypt; the turtledove, as a bird that loves the desert, signifies the people who spent time in the wilderness; but the pigeon, as a tame creature, both dwelling and roosting with humans, [signifies] the people settled in the land of promise. For this reason, therefore, he divided the heifer, and the goat, and the ram in the middle, and placed them opposite each other. By the cutting, he signified their affliction and crushing during their sojourn; by the placing of them opposite each other, he declared that they had shared in the slavery with one another. He kept the turtledove and the pigeon undivided, however, as those who had left Egypt had been delivered from the Egyptian misery. The swooping down of the birds upon the divided parts foreshadowed the attack against the people of the Egyptians. And that Abram sat down with them, driving them away, shows God's providence following over the people because of the promises made to Abram. And concerning the sun, he says, at its setting; the completion of the day signifies the completion of the times. "And a trance fell upon Abram, and behold a great and dark fear falls upon him," in order for him, I think, to become undistracted and intent upon the hearing of what was being said.

^A QUES. LXVIII. Why did God command him to be circumcised?

Having foretold their sojourn, He devised a kind of guardian for piety, so that they might not, by mingling with impious men, defile their nobility, but rather, by looking upon the sign, might keep alive an indelible memory of Him who gave it. And that this is true, the wilderness is witness. For when they spent forty years in it, they thought circumcision was superfluous, being separated from other nations and living by themselves. But when they were finally being led into the promised land, the God of all again commanded Joshua, the son of Nun, to circumcise them all, and thus to hand over the dominion of the land. For they were about to approach ^B foreign nations; and for this reason, they necessarily needed a sign which would distinguish them from foreign peoples. But if the Jews pride themselves on circumcision, let them learn that not only was the patriarch circumcised, but also Ishmael the half-slave, and the house-born servants, and the purchased slaves, and the Idumeans, and those who were born of Keturah. Moreover, the Egyptians also learned from the Israelites to be circumcised. Therefore, circumcision does not make one righteous. For all these are noted by divine Scripture as impious. Consequently, neither did circumcision justify Abraham, but his faith declared him righteous, and his virtue made him more illustrious. Circumcision, however, was given as a sign of faith.

QUES. LXIX. The divine Scripture says that the angels ate in Abraham's tent. And the same Scripture says that Abraham saw men.

If, therefore, we must attend to the bare letter, men, not angels, ate; but if we unfold the sense, they were seen to eat. For just as they, although having an incorporeal nature, and the Lord of them all, appeared to have bodies—for so they were seen—so they were seen to eat, not by conveying food into mouth and belly (for they did not have bodies), but by consuming the food as they pleased. For it is of the utmost folly to investigate ^C with curiosity the manner of mysterious things.

QUES. LXX. Why was Lot not accused because he had relations with his daughters?

Because men are also wont to forgive those who do so out of ignorance, and

therefore no one would justly blame Lot for that union. For he was ignorant of what was happening. Now, that drunkenness ^A involves a certain measure of blame, yet one tempered by pardon. For being exceedingly anxious and grieving—as one stripped of all his goods at once, and even of his wife—and in addition to all other things, of his spouse herself, he endured the daughters offering him wine beyond his need; for he was ignorant of what was being plotted, suspecting that what was being done was for his enjoyment and comfort. They, however, are entirely free from the charge; for having seen that the four cities ^B and all the villages had been consumed by the rain of fire, and that the inhabitants of Segor had been swallowed up by the earth (for the name itself signifies this, since Segor is translated as "absorption"), they supposed that the entire race of men had perished utterly. And observing the present desolation, and foreseeing the weakness of old age, they wished to devise seed for the race and some consolation for themselves. Led by this reasoning, and not in order to serve lust, they made use of the wine as an aid: and when they had taken away their father's perception through a greater abundance of wine, they made him the author of the seed.

QUES. LXXI. Why did God not forbid the illegitimate union?

He foresaw the impiety of the human race. For the Moabites served Chamos, and the Ammonites served Melchol. ^C Lest, therefore, the Israelites should participate in impiety with them as with kinsmen, He did not forbid the illegitimate marriages, so that by this means He might render them execrable and abominable to the Jews. And the God of all declares this, commanding through Moses the lawgiver: "An Ammonite and a Moabite shall not enter the Church of the Lord, until the tenth generation, and even forever."

QUES. LXXII. It seems very cruel that Ishmael, while still a young child, ^D was cast out from his father's house, with his mother alone and a skin of water.

This very thing demonstrates even more the virtue of Abraham. For when Sarah had said, "Cast out the maidservant and her son," he did not comply with her. But when—

God commanded it, he immediately added the deed to the word ^A, and this while being affectionately disposed toward Ishmael. For when God had promised offspring from Sarah, he himself said: "Let this Ishmael live in your sight." Yet, although he loved the child very much, he did what the Master had commanded. He believed in the divine promises to such an extent that he sent the child away from his house, having given him no servants, no handmaidens, no gold, no silver; but only with his mother, a few loaves of bread, and a skin of water. For he knew that the promise of Him who had commanded it was truthful. And God had promised him that He would make him a great nation, in that he was deemed worthy of His care. Which He has indeed fulfilled. For as soon as the child wept, desiring a drink, an angel sent from God pointed out a well full of potable water. ^B That He also gave him numerous offspring, as He had promised, the things seen testify. For from the borders of Egypt up to Babylon, the desert abounds with this lineage. Moreover, Abraham also gave names to these places based on his piety. For having planted a field by the well of the oath, he gave the name of that place: God eternal.

QUESTION LXXIII

Not that He might learn what He already knew; but that He might teach those who were ignorant, how justly He loved the patriarch. For this reason, for three days and as many nights, He tested the divine affection. For the patriarch, placed between nature and faith, and being goaded from both sides, gave the palm of victory to faith. ^C But God, having displayed his piety, forbade the sacrifice; for He who even forbids the sacrifice to Himself of irrational animals, how could He have endured such a sacred rite? For indeed, He continuously rebukes the Jews for this, and cries out through the prophet David: "They sacrificed their sons and their daughters to demons, and shed innocent blood, the blood of their sons and their daughters, whom they sacrificed to the idols of Chanaan." And through Ezekiel: "And you took your sons and your daughters, whom you begot for me, and offered them to your lovers." Then, demonstrating the excess of the absurdity, ^D he added this: "Beyond all your fornication." How, then, would He who condemns those who perpetrate such things, have endured to receive an only-begotten son offered as a sacrifice by his father? But in fact, these things were a shadow of the economy that had been brought about for our sake. For the Father offered the beloved Son for the world. Isaac

^A was a type of the divinity, whereas the ram was a type of the humanity. And the time itself was equal, for there were three days and three nights both here and there.

INTERR. LXXIV. What is this: "Put your hand under my thigh"?

He was sending the steward of his servants to contract a marriage, knowing that the race of Canaan was cursed, but that his own kindred had been deemed worthy of a blessing. Since, therefore, he had received both the blessing and the promise of good things in his seed, he ordered the servant to place his hand there, where he had also received the sign of faith. For having believed the divine promises, he received the seal of circumcision. He ordered the hand to be placed there, so that, being mindful both of the divine promise and of the circumcision, he might not defile the Lordly nobility by a marriage with a foreigner. ^B It must be noted, however, that the hand was placed under the thigh, but the oath was made by the God of the universe: "I adjure you," he said, "by the Lord God of heaven and of earth, that you shall not take a wife for my son Isaac from the daughters of the Canaanites, with whom I dwell," and what follows.

The servant's inquiry was also exceedingly wise; for fearing the oath, he asked that the terms of the marriage be made clear to him. "For if," he says, "the betrothed maiden should not be willing to come here, but bids the suitor to go to her, do you order your son to return to that nation?" But the patriarch Abraham, knowing that he had been led out from there by a divine call, but had not received a divine law regarding marriage—yet, being himself raised in piety, he wished to betroth a wife for his son from his kindred house. The former thing he forbids to happen, ^C as it was indeed forbidden by divine law; but the latter he entrusts to divine providence.

Trusting in this, the servant set out. He did not offer that prayer out of doubt, as some of those who are extremely simple-minded have supposed; but since he had accepted God as the assistant of the betrothal, he sought that certain signs be shown to him, through which he wished to know if the betrothal was pleasing to God. The sign, however, was not the beauty of the body, nor the nobility of lineage, nor any other of those things which are thought to be splendid, but hospitality, affability, and gentleness of mind. ^D "There shall..."

be," he says, "the maiden to whom I may say, 'Incline your pitcher that I may drink,' and she shall say to me, 'Drink, sir, and I will water your camels until they cease to drink.' This is she whom you have prepared for your servant Isaac, and by this I shall know that you have shown mercy to my lord Abraham." For since the patriarch was adorned with these advantages in a preeminent way, he wished for the bride also to correspond to the character of her father-in-law, so that conflicting ways might not produce any contention or strife.

That these were not symbolic, but manifestations of faith and piety, he shows first by the earnestness of the prayer, then by his waiting for the will of God; for this is what the divine Scripture teaches us: "But the man was watching her, and stayed silent to know whether the Lord had made his way prosperous or not." For while she was drawing water and offering the stream to the camels, he waited to see if she would provide the need to all according to his request. But when the camels had drunk, he immediately produced the symbols of the betrothal. ^B And when he had acknowledged the family and the kinship of his master, being grateful, the man, he says, worshipped the Lord and said: "Blessed be the Lord God of my lord Abraham, who has not abandoned His righteousness and His mercy from my lord. And the Lord has led me on the road to the house of my master's brother." And his entire speech proclaims the piety of his mind.

Moreover, even after the discourse, it signifies the same purpose. For when those who had begotten the maiden had agreed to the marriage, ^C he immediately, he says, "worshipped the Lord upon the ground." And the things that follow are of the same import: "Do not detain me, he says, for the Lord has prospered my way."

INTERR. LXXV.

God, wishing to establish the Israelite race, shows that it did not obtain the fecundity of children through the natural succession of nature, ^D but through the generosity of grace. And that race obtained this providence because Christ the Lord, the only-begotten Son of God, was to spring from there according to the flesh.

^A

INTERROGATION LXXVI.

INTERROGATION LXXVII.

INTERR. LXXVIII.

INTERROGATION LXXIX.

^A QUES. LXXX. Why did God not reveal his will to Isaac? In order that the providence of God toward Jacob might become manifest. This is shown by the fact that Isaac endeavored in every way to bless Esau, but the grace of God, contrary to what Isaac intended, transferred the blessing to Jacob. Isaac himself also understood this. For although he had exerted every effort, had sent Esau to hunt, and when Jacob offered him food, had asked repeatedly, "Are you my firstborn son Esau?" and had not only asked but had also placed his hands upon his body; yet, after Esau had entered and he was stunned by what had happened, he was not indignant as though deceived by his son, but recognized the divine intention and confirmed the blessing he had given.

Q. LXXXI. Does Jacob not appear to have lied when he said, "I am Esau, your firstborn"? He had bought the privileges of the primogeniture; therefore he rightly called himself the firstborn. ^B

Q. LXXXII. What is the interpretation of the blessing? The Lord Christ, who was the expectation of the nations and the Savior and Lord of the whole world, was to be born from him according to the flesh. Foreseeing this, the patriarch said: "Behold, the odor of my son is like the odor of a full field, which the Lord has blessed." That the divine Scripture frequently calls the world a "field," the Lord himself is witness in the holy Gospels when he interprets the parable: "The field, he says, is the world; but he who sows the good seed is the Son of man." ^C Observe, therefore, the salvation of the entire world in Jacob. For this reason, he prays for him for the dew of heaven and the fatness of the earth: which, in the easy and superficial sense of the letter, denote heavenly grace and the abundance of goods born from the earth; but according to the interpretation of the "field," they indicate the Lord Christ: by the dew, indeed, his divinity, and by the fatness of the earth, the humanity accepted from us. For the blessed David also, foretelling these things, said: "He shall descend as rain upon the fleece, and as drops trickling upon the earth." ^D For just as the dew descends invisibly, but when it settles below becomes manifest: so too

^A God the Word, being invisible, was seen on earth through the flesh, and lived among men, and was manifested in the flesh, according to the divine Apostle. And grain and wine are a riddle of the divine mysteries. The following words also agree with this interpretation: "And let nations serve thee." For all the nations shall serve him, says ^B the divine David. "And princes shall worship thee." For kings, he says, of Tharsis and the islands shall bring gifts. The kings of the Arabs and of Saba shall offer gifts, and all the kings of the earth shall worship him. He confirmed this blessing also when he sent him into Mesopotamia. "And may you become," he says, "the congregations of peoples, and may the Lord give to you the blessing of Abraham your father." ^C But what that blessing was is easy for one who wishes to learn. For God, the God of all, said to Abraham: "In your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed."

QUESTION LXXXIII. Why did Jacob, having received so many blessings, flee from his brother and go away alone, deprived of necessary things?

The divine providence is manifested more clearly in those matters which seem adverse. For those to whom all things fall out prosperously do not understand the extent of the good things they enjoy. ^D For this reason Jacob flees and goes into exile alone, in order that, returning with much wealth, he might himself perceive how great is the providence of the God of all, and teach others as well. He declared this care of his immediately through his appearance. For he showed him a ladder reaching as far as heaven itself, and the holy angels ascending and descending. But the Lord himself, standing above, confirmed him and drove away his fear. The angels, moreover, signified the divine ministry, concerning whom the blessed Paul says: "Are they not all ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for them who shall inherit salvation?" Any one of these things was able to render the patriarch secure. For he is taught that nothing is administered by the God of all negligently or without care; but that He himself manages all things, using the holy angels as ministers. He granted to him also the blessing which he had granted both to his father and his grandfather, concerning both the multiplication of the seed and the birth of the Master of the world. "For," he says, "in your seed shall all the tribes of the earth be blessed." Afterwards he promises him care and help in his present circumstances also. "For behold," he says, "I am with you, guarding you on the way you go, and I shall return you to this land, since I will not forsake you,

until I have done everything that I have spoken to you about." ^A

INTERR. LXXXIV. Why does Jacob anoint the stone? He rewarded the most bountiful Lord with the gifts he could. For after he had set up the stone which he had placed under his head, he poured oil upon it. We find that this is still done today by many women ^B who have believed in the Lord. For they are accustomed in divine shrines to anoint with oil the railings of the sanctuaries and the tombs of the holy martyrs. This signifies the piety of the soul. The philanthropist Lord does not reject even the smallest things, accepting the intention of the one who performs the act.

INTERR. LXXXV. Many use as a pretense for lasciviousness the fact that Jacob had four wives. The intention of each of the things that took place must be investigated. For if we judge in this way, we shall find that the patriarch Jacob betrothed Rachel, driven by love, and that he touched Leah against his own will. ^C Immediately, therefore, when he perceived the deceit, he was distressed and complained to his father-in-law. He joined with Bilhah, not for the sake of pleasure, but to comfort his wife. For since Rachel was tormented because of her childlessness, and was saying foolishly: "Give me children; if not, I shall die," the patriarch rebuked her piously and showed her who the Creator of nature is, and that it is not marriage that is the creator of children, but God, the Lawgiver of marriage. For he said to her: "Am I in the place of God, who has deprived you ^D of the fruit of the womb?" Nevertheless, wishing to appease her, he acceded to her request. For she had asked him to have intercourse with her maid, so that she might call the child born of her her own. The same thing happened in the case of Zilpah. For again, when Leah ceased to bear children, she petitioned him to sow that field. These things do not signify any lasciviousness at all, but demonstrate the man's gentleness and how he endeavored to serve his wives. Beyond this, one must also consider that at that time there was no law prohibiting multiple marriages, and that those who were fathers of many children were thought to be most blessed. And that this is true, the divine promises testify. For God of all said to Abraham: "Look up to heaven and see the stars, if you can count them."

^A And He added: "So shall your seed be." And again: "I will make your seed as the sand 76 which is by the seashore, which shall not be numbered for the multitude." He would not have given this promise to him, had He not considered a numerous offspring to be the greatest 77 good.

INTERROGATION LXXXVI

Why were the wives held by mutual jealousy?

INTERROGATION LXXXVII

Why does Scripture mention "fortune"?

INTERROGATION LXXXVIII

But Jacob himself said to Laban, "The Lord has blessed you for my foot."

INTERR. LXXXIX. Why did he place the peeled rods before them as they were drinking?

As he took wives, desiring to beget children, but did not place the hope of begetting children in the marriage, but in God, the lawgiver of (the) marriage; so also he peeled the rods, not trusting in them, but awaiting divine assistance. Whence he also attained to the divine apparition, and heard Him saying: ^A "Lift up your eyes, and see the goats and the rams mounting the she-goats, white and spotted, and ash-colored and speckled. For I have seen all that Laban does to you. I am your God who appeared to you in the place of God, where you anointed a pillar for me, and vowed a vow to me." For since the dark and the spotted had been entrusted to the sons of Laban, and those flocks stood at a distance of three days' journey from these, the defender of those suffering injustice shows him variegated rams and goats mating, so that he might learn by experience how great providence those who put their trust in the God of all enjoy. ^B It is necessary to note, too, that having called him "angel" who appeared above, He demonstrates that he is the same (one) (and) God. "For I am," He says, "the God who appeared to you in the way." He had seen angels ascending and descending by the ladder, but the Lord fixed above it; him he here named both angel and God: God, I say, because he is such by nature; but angel, so that we may know that it is not God the Father who appeared, but the only-begotten Son. For of whom could the Father be an angel? But the Son is both God and the Angel of Great Counsel. For He Himself announced to us the mysteries of the Father: "For what I have heard from my Father," He says, "I have made known to you." ^C Thus He also called Him who called Abraham both angel and God.

INTERR. XC. What is the scope of the stolen idols?

Some have said that Rachel stole them because she was still disposed toward them; but I, on the contrary, suppose that she took them by theft because she wished to free her father from the impious worship of demons. For the divine Scripture teaches her piety. "For God remembered," it says, "Rachel, and God heard her, and opened her womb." For having heard from Jacob: "Am I in the place of God, who has withholden ^D from you the fruit of the womb?" she clearly offered a more earnest prayer to God...

and obtained her request. And even after the birth, she demonstrated her piety. "For she said," it is written, "Rachel: God has taken away my reproach, and she called his name Joseph, saying: May God add to me another son." How, then, having this disposition towards God, could she have endured to serve idols that are no gods? But I think that something else is also indicated by these things. For Jacob bore the type of the God of all. For God also had two peoples: the elder, having a veil upon its heart; the younger, adorned with the beauty of faith. And Jacob had two wives: Leah, who had weak eyes, and Rachel, who was beautiful in form and very lovely to look upon; and the elder [was] abounding in children, but the younger [was] barren. For the Church gathered from the nations was once barren, but afterward became fruitful. For it says: "Rejoice, O barren one who does not bear; break forth and cry out, you who do not travail; for the children of the desolate one shall be more than those of her who has a husband." Since, therefore, the Church believing in God the Savior has torn out her ancestral error by the roots, and Rachel happened to be the type of this Church, she stole the idols of her father, so that even in this she might prefigure the truth. ^B

INTERR. XCI. What is this: "Jacob swore by the fear of his father Isaac"? He called the piety of Isaac his "fear," that is, God, whose fear he carried in his soul.

INTERR. XCII. Why does the angel wrestle with Jacob? He encourages him who feared his brother. For this reason, he even yielded the victory to him, saying as it were, "You have conquered me, and do you fear a man?" ^C But that he might not grow arrogant, thinking that he had overcome God, he showed by the touch to his thigh that he had allowed himself to be overcome. For by the touch, he induced numbness. But when Jacob perceived the power of the One who appeared, he asked for a blessing from Him: and He both gave him what he asked and changed his name. "For," He said, "your name shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel shall be your name; because you have prevailed with God, and with men you shall be powerful." He also indicated the cause of the victory. "For do not fear," He says, "a man, ^D

it remained, even after he had awakened, that his thigh was numb and he was limping, so that he might not take the vision for a mere imagination, but might know more accurately the truth of the dream. For this reason, when he asked what his name was, he not only fails in his request, but is even rebuked, as having exceeded the measures of nature. "For why do you ask," He says, "my name? And this is wonderful." It should be noted here also, that He called the same person both man and God. "For you have prevailed," He said, "with God, and with men you shall be powerful." And he called the name of that place "The Species of God." "For I have seen God face to face, and my soul has been saved." And again: "The sun rose for him when he had passed by the Species of God." By all these things we learn that the only-begotten Son of God and God appeared here also to Jacob. ^B

What is this: "This is Aina, who found Jamin (mules) in the desert, when he was pasturing the beasts of burden of Sebeon his father"? The Syrian says that he found a spring; for the spring is called *Aina* in the Syrian tongue.

QUESTION XCIII.

in his stead Jobab, son of Zara from Bosora," and these things are in agreement with the history of Job.

^A INTERROGATION XCIV. Why did Joseph’s brothers envy him? Joseph was loved by his father, both because he was born late in his life, and because he was the son of Rachel, and because he excelled in virtue; therefore, seeing him preferred, they envied him. And in the first place, they attempted to stir up their father’s hatred against him, using many reproaches against him; but when they were frustrated in their intent, they desired to kill him. Finally, having taken counsel, they sold him. The dream of the sheaves signifies the future adoration that would occur on account of grain; since for the sake of receiving grain the brothers went into Egypt, they bowed down to him in accordance with the prophecy.

INTERROGATION XCV. Why did Thamar, adorned in harlot’s attire, deceive her father-in-law? The lineage of Abraham had become exceedingly illustrious on account of the piety which it cultivated. Thamar, knowing this well, applied herself to the task of bringing forth children from that lineage. Since, therefore, her father-in-law did not betroth her to his youngest son, fearing that he might die just as his brothers had done, she was compelled to steal the opportunities for procreation, because she was forbidden from taking them openly. Furthermore, she also convicts her father-in-law, who, while being not at all temperate himself, yet forced her to preserve temperance. He himself also demonstrated that he judged this to be the case; for when he had discovered her to be pregnant and had condemned her to death, after he learned from whence she was pregnant, he declared her innocent, but condemned himself. ^B "Thamar," he said, "is more righteous than I, because I did not give her to my son Selom." But that Thamar devised this for the sake of procreation, and not for the sake of pleasure, what followed afterwards makes manifest. For she was not joined again either to Judah or to any other man, but was content to be called the mother of those who were born of that seed.

INTERROGATION XCVI. What did the things that happened concerning Zara and Phares signify? They signified two peoples: Phares, indeed, the Jewish people, and Zara those from the Gentiles who have believed. For even before the Law there were many alumni of piety, living according to faith, not according to the ^D Law. For this reason the

Zara put forth his hand, demonstrating the time that preceded the law; for there were many who were pious and endowed with virtue before the law. ^A The scarlet thread was a sign of the sacrifices of the ancients. For they also propitiated God with sacrifices, as did Abel, and Enoch, and Noah, and Melchizedek, and Abraham also, and Isaac, and Jacob. Then, when he had drawn back his hand, Phares came forth; for the law was a medium between those who were before the law and those who are after the law. Therefore the blessed Paul also says: "And the law entered," ^B teaching that even before the law they were justified by faith, and after the law grace shone forth. Moreover, the Lord according to the flesh was born of Phares. "Whose," he says, "are the fathers, and of whom is Christ according to the flesh, who is over all, God." And in the Epistle to the Hebrews: "For it is manifest that our Lord Jesus Christ sprang out of Juda." This, too, the blessed Matthew taught while writing His genealogy. Moses the blessed ^C indeed set forth this narrative, teaching the Jews that that most famous lineage of David was composed of women of foreign stock, so that they might not boast against those who had believed from among the Gentiles, as though they had kept their nobility untarnished.

INTERROGATION XCVII.

Let us grant that Leah, as one still imperfect in the exercise of piety, said, "I have prospered"; ^D how then does the historian, describing the things pertaining to Joseph, say, "And he was a man who prospered"? Read the aforementioned passage, and you will find the resolution; for when he had said, "The Lord was with Joseph," he added, "and he was a man who prospered"; and he further added, "And he was in the house of his master the Egyptian. And his master knew that the Lord was with him, and that the Lord made all that he did to prosper." Thus in all things he prospered, because the Lord was with him; for He Himself caused those things which came from him to succeed. This same thing he also said when narrating what had happened to him in the prison: "For all things," he says, "were by the hand of Joseph, because the Lord was with him, and whatever he did, the Lord made it to prosper in his hands."

INTERROGATION XCVIII.

How did the chief cook, being a eunuch, have a wife? For the most part, indeed, both eunuchs and those who have been castrated are under

the same name; but it is not absurd for even a eunuch to have a wife in his house, managing household affairs. ^A

INTERR. XCIX. For what reason, after so much time had elapsed, did Joseph not inform his father of his servitude, nor did God reveal this to Jacob? ^B

It was necessary, according to the prophecy made to Abraham, that Jacob should descend into Egypt with his children and grandchildren. Now, if he had known what had befallen his son Joseph, he would undoubtedly have had him brought back by sending the price of his redemption. For this reason, God did not greatly trouble Himself about his mourning, so that He might fulfill the dispensation and later establish him in a more pleasant way of life. Joseph himself also teaches his brothers about this dispensation of God: "For to preserve life," he says, "God sent me before you, to nourish a great people." And David also says these things: "He called for a famine upon the land: he broke every staff of bread. He sent a man before them, even Joseph, who was sold for a servant," and the rest. But if the patriarch had known of his son's servitude, he would certainly have redeemed him, and once redeemed, he would never have entered prison; and thus he would by no means have interpreted the dreams for those servants: and had he not interpreted them, he would not have become known to Pharaoh; and not having become known, he would not have made clear the prophecy given through the dreams. And not having done this, he would not have been entrusted with the reins of Egypt. And had he not received the headship of Egypt, he would not have brought the patriarch with his family into Egypt. Therefore, the purpose of the divine dispensation is made clear by the final outcome. ^C

INTERR. C. Did the brothers, therefore, not sin, since they served the divine dispensation?

Their work was full of jealousy and envy; but God, being wise, used their wickedness for the opposite end. For by the very arts with which they tried to hinder the outcome of the dreams, God imposed the fulfillment upon those dreams. ^D

INTERR. CI. For what reason was he harsher upon first seeing his brothers?

Mindful of the things they had committed against him, and not seeing Benjamin, he suspected that they had perpetrated the same thing upon him as well. But when

he saw his brother alive, he deemed them worthy of both forgiveness and every kind of care.

^A Q. 102. What interpretation do these words have, Psomthom phamnech? He called him the interpreter of secrets, as one who had explained dreams.

^A Q. 103. For what reason did he order the second [brother] to be imprisoned, and not the firstborn? He knew the intention of Reuben, and clearly knew how much defense he had used in his [Joseph's] behalf with the brothers, and how much eagerness he had brought to his salvation. Since, therefore, Simeon did not assist Reuben, he very justly ordered him to be imprisoned; but after the brothers had departed, he deemed him worthy of every care. When, however, these things were happening, their conscience did not allow them to be at rest, but brought to memory the iniquity committed against the brother. "For each one," he says, "said to his brother: 'Truly, we are in sin concerning our brother, because we despised the affliction of his soul when he besought us, and we did not hear him. Therefore has all this affliction come upon us.'" And Reuben also brings in the reproof at the right time. "For he said," he says, "to them, 'Did I not speak to you, saying: Do not wrong the child, and you did not hear me? And behold, his blood is required.'" From this it is possible to know clearly the unwavering tribunal of conscience. For it calls to memory the iniquity committed twenty-two years ago.

^C Q. 104. Why did the father not trust Reuben to take Benjamin? He was suspect to him because of the unlawful intercourse, and the insolent behavior in the marriage bed. He was ignorant, however, of how much he had labored for the preservation of Joseph.

Q. 105. What is [meant by], "He divines by divination with it"? Wishing to increase the crime of the supposed theft, they call the cup an instrument of divination. This even Joseph himself said: "Do you not know that a man like me divines by divination?" He was saying these things...

^A not as one making use of soothsaying and omens, but shaping his words in accordance with the subject matter at hand. It is worthy to admire the precision of his words. For he could not bear, even while pretending to his brothers, to attribute the skill of divination to himself, but rather to another who was entrusted with the care of the same authority. He did not say, "I divine," but, "a man like me divines by divination."

QUESTION CVI. Why did he bring about the drama concerning the cup? He wanted to test the disposition of his brothers and to know clearly if they would contend on behalf of Benjamin, who was being falsely accused; for this reason he hid the cup in his sack. But when he saw that they were ^B not only defending him but actually fighting for his sake, he laid aside the persona of the one who commands and displayed a brotherly countenance. And when they were struck with terror and almost desiring the earth to open up for them, he himself ordered them to be of good cheer, saying: "Now therefore do not be saddened, and let it not seem harsh to you that you sold me here. For God sent me before you for life." And in a very urbane manner, as he sent them away, he exhorted them: "Do not be angry, he says, on the road," which is to say, "Do not commit such things as those you dared to commit against me."

QUESTION CVII. Why did he acquire the livestock and land of the Egyptians for King Pharaoh? They were unable, while suffering from the lack of grain and the scarcity of food, either to feed their livestock or to sow the land. Therefore, having taken possession of these in the time of famine, he later returned them, having established a law that the fifth part of the annual income should be paid to the king, so that in times of need they might have stored up the means of life. ^C But he left only the priestly land exempt from this levy, for the service of the king. Yet the priests of the God who truly is do not enjoy this immunity. To such an extent did the impious show reverence to those who were not gods.

QUESTION CVIII. Why did Jacob command his body to be buried in Hebron? Not because he was greatly concerned about his burial, as some have supposed, but to console ^D his family and to teach them that the Lord God would bring them all out of Egypt and give them the promised land.

^A Joseph expressed the same sentiment more clearly, for as he was dying he said: "I die, but God will visit you, and will bring you up out of this land unto the land which God swore to our fathers, to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob." And Joseph bound the sons of Israel, saying: "At the visitation with which God will visit you, you shall carry up my bones from hence with you." Thus it is certain that both he and the former one, in announcing the return, gave these instructions regarding their burial.

INTERROGATION CIX.

And first, Joseph’s dream attained its fulfillment, for he had seen the sun, the moon, and eleven stars bowing down to him. Furthermore, he also foretells the kingdom of the tribe of Ephraim and the subjection of the ten tribes. This is what the divine Apostle also said: "By faith Jacob, when he was dying, blessed each of the sons of Joseph, and worshipped, leaning upon the top of his staff." ^C He also gave him a double portion. For he said in prophecy: "Ephraim and Manasseh shall be mine, as Reuben and Simeon."

And prophetically he preferred Ephraim to Manasseh. For although Joseph had preserved the birthright for Manasseh as the firstborn and had placed each according to their order, the patriarch, by crossing his hands, laid them on, the right hand upon the younger and the left upon the elder. And when Joseph, thinking that Jacob was doing this out of ignorance because of the weakness of his eyes, said: "Not so, my father, for this is the elder," he heard: "I know, my son, I know; he also shall become a people, and he also shall be great; but his younger brother shall be greater than he." ^D It should be noted that everywhere those who come after are preferred before the firstborn; for Abel was chosen over Cain, and Shem, though second, was preferred over Japheth—"for Japheth was the brother of the elder [Shem]"—and Isaac was preferred over Ishmael, and Jacob over Esau, and Joseph was preferred over Reuben and Judah, and Ephraim over Manasseh. Likewise also with the others who followed afterward; for Aaron was preferred over...

Moses, and David, being the youngest, was preferred over his seven brothers. The patriarch Jacob himself, however, taught the reason for this through the prophecy of his burial: "For behold," he said, "I die, and God shall be with you, and shall return you to the land of our fathers." ^B

INTERR. CX. How is Jacob said to have blessed his children when he cursed some of them?

The final words of the patriarch are neither curses nor blessings, but prophecies. For he says: "Gather together, that I may tell you what will happen to you in the last days." He also commemorated the things done by some of them—not so that the children might be punished for their fathers' sins, but by shaping his words into the form of a curse and a blessing for the common benefit of those who read them. And he reproaches Reuben for his insolence and boldness, and for his lawlessness against his father’s bed; on account of which he predicts that his descendants will be few. For this is what the phrase "Do not boil over like water" signifies, meaning: "Do not increase into a great multitude." He also rebukes Simeon and Levi, mourning the unjust destruction of the Shechemites, and he prays that he might have no part in that transgression. Yet he curses not them, but their wicked passions—namely, their wrath and their fury. He called wrath "desire," for wrath derives its etymology from this; for he who is wrathful desires to take vengeance upon his enemy. And even this punishment was a prophecy: "For I will divide them," he says, "in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel." But the tribe of Levi, because of its preeminent honor, was scattered, so that in every tribe there were Levites and priests, and they reaped the benefit from them. They did not receive an inheritance of their own, but in every tribe certain cities were allotted to them, and a defined number of cubits of suburban land was situated before the cities. And the tribe of Simeon also— ^{C D}

^A had no distinct lot, but according to the patriarch’s prediction, it was dispersed among the other tribes. But the patriarch recounts many praises of Judah: "Judah, may your brothers praise you; your hands shall be upon the back of your enemies. The sons of your father shall bow down to you. Judah is a lion’s whelp. From the shoot, my son, you have ascended; you lay down and slept as a lion, and as a lion’s whelp. Who shall arouse him?" But none of these things befits Judah himself, but rather the tribe that sprang from him. For this was a royal tribe, since first David reigned, and then those who descended from him; it was also the most powerful of all the other tribes. For when King David ordered the people to be numbered, he found four hundred thousand in the tribe of Judah, but only nine hundred thousand in the other tribes. And indeed, even in the desert, they were found, when numbered, to be more numerous than the other tribes. But the prophecy received its exact fulfillment in the Lord Christ, who sprang from the shoot according to the patriarch Jacob, and according to the prophet Isaiah: "A rod has gone forth from the root of Jesse, and a flower has ascended from the root." To Him also befits that which is said: "Lying down, you slept as a lion, and as a lion’s whelp." ^B For just as a lion is terrifying even when it is sleeping, so the death of the Lord has become terrifying both to death itself and to the devil. He called Him both a lion and a lion’s whelp, as King and Son of a king, and as God and Son of God; for according to His humanity He sprang from David, and as God He was begotten of the Father before the ages. And the phrase, "Who shall arouse him?" declares His ineffable power. For He raised Himself, according to His own prediction: "Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up." He also foretells the time of His appearance: "A ruler shall not fail from Judah, nor a leader from his loins, until he comes for whom it is reserved; and he is the expectation of the nations." This is the clearest ^C sign of the Lord’s coming. For not only the kings of the Jews failed, but also the chief priests and the prophets, so that the end of the prophecy might be shown. For when the birth of our Savior was drawing near, foreign kings ruled over them, so that the eternal King might be revealed, who was the expectation of the nations, according to the promise given by the God of all to the patriarchs. For indeed, the God of all had promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob that in their seed He would bless ^D all the nations of the earth.

^A This also the patriarch Jacob made manifest here when blessing Judah. "For there shall not fail," he says, "a ruler from Judah, and a leader from his loins, until He comes for whom it is reserved, and He is the expectation of the nations." Then, showing the people composed of both Gentiles and Jews, he says: "Binding his foal to the vine, and to the vine-tendril the foal of his ass." That Israel was called a vine, all the prophets teach. For indeed David says, "You brought a vine out of Egypt," and the rest. And Isaiah: "A vineyard was made for my beloved on a horn, in a fertile place." And through Jeremiah, the God of all said, "I planted you a fruitful vine, a true one." And through the Lawgiver: "For their vine is the vine of Sodom." And the Lord in the sacred Gospels says, "A certain man planted a vineyard, and let it out to husbandmen, and went abroad." He calls the Gentile people a "foal," as being untamed and having never had a tamer. For the Lord also hinted at this to the apostles, commanding them to go into the village over against them and to "loose the ass that is tied, and her foal, upon which," He says, "no man has sat." ^B For neither patriarch, nor lawgiver, nor prophet concerned himself with the salvation of the nations. But the divine apostles, being ordered to make disciples of all the nations and to baptize them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, loosed the ass, that is, human nature, which was bound in the chains of sin; and they also loosed the foal, namely, the people born of it; and laying their garments upon it—that is, the grace which they had obtained ("For as many as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ")—they rendered the previously untamed foal gentle, and made the Master sit upon it, and bound it to the vine, that is, to themselves. For the apostles were from the Jews. And not only they, but also the seventy disciples, and the three thousand whom the first of the apostles fished in at the same ^C time, and the five thousand, and the many myriads, of whom the thrice-blessed James speaks to the most divine Paul. Therefore, not only did those who believed cleave to the apostles, but also to the disciples of the apostles; and foreseeing this, the patriarch said: "Binding his foal to the vine, and to the vine-tendril the foal of his ass." ^D Thereupon he also predicts the passion: "He shall wash his robe in wine, and his garment in the blood of the grape. His eyes are bright with wine, and his teeth are white as milk." He calls his body his robe, and his blood his wine: since indeed

the Lord also has called the mystical wine blood. We also hear the evangelist John teaching that when the soldier pierced His side, blood and water came out. These fountains flowed down through His body. For this reason the patriarch says: "He shall wash his robe in wine." [[B]] Then he shows the joy that would come from the passion: "His eyes are bright with wine." For the saving passion is the joy of the world. That he called the passion this is testified to by the Lord Himself, saying: "Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me." Likewise He said to the sons of Zebedee: "Are you able to drink the cup that I am to drink?" Therefore, the brightness of the eyes signifies the joy after the passion. For after the passion and the resurrection, the disciples were sent into all the world, offering salvation to those who believe. And he compared the beauty and splendor of the teaching to the whitest teeth: "For his teeth," he says, "are whiter than milk."

So much the patriarch uttered in blessing Judah. But for Zebulun, he predicted a seaside dwelling; for Issachar, agriculture; for Dan, according to some, what was done by Samson. For he was from this tribe, and he was numbered among the judges. And for this reason he says: "Dan shall judge his people, as one tribe in Israel." Others say he predicted what pertains to Laish, now called Paneas. For some, suddenly emerging from this tribe, attacked this city, took it by force, inhabited it, and imposed their own name upon it; for they called it Dan. But I believe that the divine Spirit, when prophesying through the patriarch concerning our Savior, also spoke in this prophecy about the Antichrist. For what is written fits him very well. "For Dan," he says, "shall judge his people, as one tribe in Israel." For just as, he says, our Savior and Lord, having sprung from the tribe of Judah, will save the world, so from the tribe of Dan a destructive serpent [[222]] shall come forth. For this is what he says: "Let Dan be a serpent in the way, sitting in the path, biting the horse's heel. And the rider shall fall backward, looking for the salvation of the Lord." For because he uses all sorts of circumventing tactics to try to plunder those who are deceived into destruction, he likens him to a certain serpent lying in the path and poisoning those passing by. I think, however, that he calls the body the horse [—]

[—] and the soul the rider; and the falling backward, that is to say, lying supine, denotes death. For such is the posture of those who have died. ^A And by the heel he hinted at the deception. For since he deceives some, but brings upon others grievous chastisements, he has indicated the body by the horse, upon the biting and destruction of which death ensues, bringing the fruits of hope to those who endure; and the fruit of such hope is salvation. He also foretells to Gad the ambushes that will come upon him from robber incursions. For this is what he says: "A pirate troop shall plunder him." But he also predicts his future victory. "For he himself," he says, "shall plunder him at the heels." In like manner also [he foretells] the grain-bearing land of Asher, and the increase into a multitude of Naphtali. For this is what he said: "A shoot set loose, yielding beauty in its produce." ^B Thereafter, when he has set forth the envy against Joseph and his manifold ambushes, he praises the divine providence, by which he conquered those who had fought against him. For, he says, "Their bows were broken with might, and the sinews of the arms of their hands were loosed by the hand of the Mighty One of Jacob. Thence is he who strengthened Thee, Israel, from the God of thy father. And my God helped thee, and blessed thee with the blessing of heaven from above, and the blessing of the earth having all things. On account of the blessing of the breasts and of the womb, the blessing of thy father and mother, thou hast prevailed above the blessing of the everlasting mountains, and above the desire of the eternal hills. They shall be upon the head of Joseph, and upon the crown of the brothers of whom he was leader." Through all these things he gave praise to his own God, who ^C both showed him to be stronger than the brother who had fought against him, and showed the son to be invincible, when he was being plotted against by so many brothers. This guardianship, he says, you have attained, having received it as a reward for the care you showed toward those who begat you. For this is what he says: "On account of the blessing of the breasts and of the womb, the blessing of thy father and thy mother." For he had been a diligent nurse of his father's old age. And he spoke of what was done for the father as common to both him and the mother. For she too would have obtained the fruit of that same care, had she not departed from life. Finally, he prays for him splendor and brightness, that he himself might be illustrious among all. "For thou shalt prevail," he says, "above the blessing of the everlasting mountains, and above the desire of the eternal hills. They shall be upon the head of Joseph, and upon the crown of the brothers of whom he was leader." Furthermore, regarding what we call ^D [boungous — hills], Aquila interpreted it as [thinas — sands].

^A of the father. And he says that the things that happened to him are common to him and to his mother. For she too would have enjoyed the same care, had she not departed this life sooner. Then he prays for distinction for him, that he might become conspicuous among all. "For you have prevailed," he says, "over the blessing of the everlasting mountains, and the desire of the eternal hills. They shall be on the head of Joseph, and on the crown of those of whom he became the chief brother." Now Aquila interpreted the "hills" as "scops" (lookouts). Since, then, mountains and hills are seen from afar, he prays that he might become equally known to these, and most conspicuous of all. And he has called Benjamin a ravenous wolf, because of the incident that befell his tribe. Wherefore he added: "He shall eat in the morning, and in the evening he shall distribute food." ^B For in the first and second conflict those who had conquered later perished entirely, except for a very few, whom the victors, having taken pity on them, dared not give wives to because of an oath, but devised a marriage for them in another way. It should be known, however, that some have applied this prophecy to the divine Paul; for like a wolf he was ravaging the Church, entering into houses; but later he distributed spiritual food to the world. Having said these things, and having signified his own death, the writer said: "And he lifted his feet onto the bed and expired, and was gathered to his people." But by these words he hinted at the hope of the resurrection. For if they were destroyed entirely, and did not pass to another life, he would not have said, "He was gathered to his people." This very thing, moreover, God of all Himself said to Abraham: "You shall go to your fathers in peace, having been nourished in a good old age." From this the Lord also refuted the unbelief of the Sadducees, saying: "But that the dead are raised, have you not read: I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob? God is not the God of the dead, but of the living."

QUESTIONS ON EXODUS

EXODUS

^C INTERROGATION I.

How is that which is said, "They became abundant" (rendered in Greek as "effusi facti sunt" or "became common/effuse"), to be understood?

It did not set this down contumeliously, as some have thought, but declared the numerous multitude. For thus, he says,

they increased, such that they were poured out over all that land. Thus also did those around Aquila interpret ^A it. This is also indicated by the following: "For," he says, "the land multiplied them." And a little later: "And in proportion as they humiliated them, so much the more did they increase and grow stronger, very, very much."

INTERR. II. What does this mean: "Because the midwives feared God, they made themselves houses"? When Pharaoh commanded the midwives to destroy the males, they, because they revered God, refused to comply with the law regarding the killing of children. For this reason, God, rewarding them, bestowed upon them an abundance of good things.

INTERR. III. How did Pharaoh's daughter know that the child was a Hebrew? The circumcision made this plain. From this it is clear that the Egyptians were not yet circumcised at that time; but later, having emulated the Hebrews, they adopted the law of circumcision. Hence, too, God ^B of all said through Jeremiah: "I will visit upon all the circumcised in their uncircumcision, upon Egypt, and upon the sons of Edom," and what follows.

INTERR. IV. Why did Moses marry a foreign woman? He was a type of Christ the Lord, who, having been born of the Jews according to the flesh, called the Church from the Gentiles his own bride.

INTERR. V. Some say that an angel appeared to Moses in the bush. The reading of the passage declares who it is that appeared. "For," it says, "an angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire from the bush." And a little later: "But when the Lord saw that he was approaching to look, the Lord called to him from the bush." And again after a little: "And he said to him, 'I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.'" And immediately he added: "But Moses turned away his face; for he was afraid to look before God." And he subjoined: "Seeing I have seen the affliction ^C of my people who are in Egypt, and have heard their cry..."

^A And the rest. And again: "I am who I am. Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel: He who is has sent me to you." And the entire passage demonstrates that it is God who appeared. But he also called him an angel, so that we might know that the one appearing is not God the Father—for whose angel would the Father be?—but rather the only-begotten Son, the Angel of the great counsel, who said to the holy disciples: "All things whatsoever I have heard from my Father, I have made known to you." And just as he has set the name "angel," not signifying some ministry, but indicating the person of the Only-Begotten; so again he proclaims both his nature and his power, saying that he said: "I am who I am," and, "I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob; this is my name forever, and a memorial of generations." These things both indicate the divine essence and demonstrate the eternal and everlasting. ^B

INTERROGATION VI.

It proclaims the power and humanity of God, in that the unquenchable fire did not consume that which was like dry wood. But I think that other things are also signified by this. And that Israel, being plotted against by the Egyptians, will not be consumed, but shall be superior to those who make war upon him. And also how the Only-Begotten, having become man, and having inhabited a virginal womb, will preserve that virginity undefiled. But some say that God appeared in the bush, and not in another plant, for the reason that no one could carve a god out of a bush. For it was likely that the Jews would have dared to do this, if he had appeared in another plant. ^C

INTERROGATION VII.

Some say, so that he might cast away worldly cares, which are yoked to this mortal life. For the skins of footwear are dead things. Others say, so that he might sanctify the ground with bare feet. But I accept neither of these opinions. In the first place, because he had not yet been ordained either high priest or prophet. And secondly, since God had sanctified that place, and for that reason had called it holy, I think it superfluous to say that Moses sanctified the place with his feet. I think, therefore, that two things are signified by this. For first, he renders him more devout by this reason, so that he ^D may hear the things commanded with fear. Thereafter, he is trained to understand how it is fitting...

for the priests to serve in the tabernacle. For they too performed their divine services and sacrifices with naked feet. ^B

QUESTION VIII.

He sufficiently demonstrated that He had foreknown it. "For I know," He says, "that the king of Egypt will not let you go, unless by a mighty hand. And I will stretch out My hand, and strike the Egyptians." But yet, being good and philanthropic, He does not endure to punish from foreknowledge alone, but awaits the end of deeds, and shows to all the justice of the punishment. Moreover, it is far more equitable that his malice and wickedness be laid bare, than that God be thought cruel. For if He had punished him before the demonstrations, He would have appeared both cruel and unjust; but now, the long-suffering of God is manifest, and the impiety and ferocity of Pharaoh are convicted. ^C

QUESTION IX.

Because Pharaoh, being by nature endowed with reason, used cruelty against the Hebrews, and rendered that which was divine within him brutal, God commanded the rod, with which he had whipped him, to be transformed into a serpent, for the conviction of his ferocity and the manifestation of his malevolence. For indeed, this also is added to the curse of the serpent: "I will put enmity between you and the woman," and the rest. ^D

QUESTION X.

The family of Jacob, raised in piety, set out for Egypt, but there they learned the impiety of the Egyptians. However, being liberated from their servitude, they recognized the God of all. Therefore, through the alteration of the hand, He indicated their impurity and leprosy, and conversely, their purification. But in addition to these things, the Lord God was also dispensing something else. For since He was about to set forth the law concerning lepers, and to call them unclean—though nothing is unclean which is not voluntary—by these things He was dispensing other matters, and used these laws; which, God willing, when we arrive at that place, we shall demonstrate. He caused the leprosy to infect the hand of the lawgiver, teaching those who have been more fully instructed that none of these things is unclean. For the right hand, which…

had performed those miracles, having first become leprous, served the divine signs, and changed the elements. By this means, ^A He also instructed the lawgiver not to be high-minded, but, by remembering the hand that had been leprous, to recognize his nature.

INTERROGATION XI. Since the God of all used Moses as a minister, why did He create him as someone with a weak voice and a slow tongue?

Because this better demonstrated the divine power. ^B For just as He appointed fishermen, tax collectors, and leather-workers to be heralds of truth and teachers of piety, so too by a weak voice and a slow tongue, He confounded the wise men of Egypt.

INTERROGATION XII. How is the text, "I will harden the heart of Pharaoh," to be understood?

It was very easy for God, after the first act of disobedience, to bring total destruction upon him; but using ineffable long-suffering, He brought moderate chastisements upon him. These, however, made his heart rebellious; for, thinking that God could not use more severe punishments, he despised the moderate scourges. And that this is so, the history teaches. For when he first heard those divine words, "Let my people go, that they may serve me in the wilderness," ^C he took it up and said, "Who is the Lord, that I should obey his voice? I do not know the Lord, and I will not let Israel go." Afterwards, when the rod was changed into a serpent, the divine Scripture says: "And the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, and he did not listen to them, just as the Lord had spoken to them." And immediately it adds: "And the Lord said to Moses: The heart of Pharaoh is weighed down, so that he does not let the people go." Both expressions signify the free choice of the will: both "The heart of Pharaoh was hardened" and "The heart of Pharaoh is weighed down." For the heart is indeed weighed down when it is dragged along by wickedness. And the blessed David clearly teaches us this: "My iniquities have gone over my head, and like a heavy burden they have weighed heavily upon me." ^D And Zacharias saw iniquity bearing a talent of lead in its mouth. But the heart, acting stubbornly, is said to be hardened, as if resisting.

the Lord God ^B and striving to overcome His power. For the pious heart is submissive, according to the prophetic exhortation which says, "Be subject to the Lord, and pray to Him." But the contrary heart, being as it were stony, is hardened. Hence the God of all said through the prophet Ezekiel concerning the Jews: "And I will take away the stony heart out of them." For this reason also the blessed Moses, when singing the song of victory concerning Pharaoh and the Egyptians, said: "They sank into the deep like a stone." And again: "They sank like lead in mighty waters." For because they weighed down their own heart, they sank like lead; and because they hardened it, they sank into the deep like a stone.

That this obstinacy of heart and hardness comes from ourselves, the divine Apostle is witness, saying: "Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness, and forbearance and longsuffering; not knowing that the goodness of God leadeth thee to repentance? But after thy hardness and impenitent heart treasurest up unto thyself wrath against the day of wrath and revelation of the righteous judgment of God; Who will render to every man according to his deeds." ^C In addition to these things, it must also be considered that if Pharaoh had been evil by nature, he would never have changed his mind. But now we see him softened by chastisement, yet hardened by divine long-suffering. For while being chastised, he would beseech the lawgiver: "Pray for me," he said. And again: "The Lord is righteous: I and my people are wicked." But when the punishment ceased, he was weighed down, and would contradict the divine commands. And when the plague of the dog-fly was brought upon them, he commanded them to sacrifice to God in Egypt; but when the divine Moses said he could not do this because of the Egyptians: "For the things which we would sacrifice," he says, "are those held by them as gods, and if we do this, they will pelt us with stones and kill us," he finally permitted them to go into the desert and perform the sacrifices. ^D After the prophet had prayed and caused the dog-fly to vanish: "He weighed down," he says, "his heart even at this time, and would not let the people go." This same thing happened also with the plague upon the cattle: "For Pharaoh saw," he says, "that of all the cattle of the children of Israel there had not one died, and the heart of Pharaoh was weighed down, and he did not let the people go." In all these things, he showed that he acted of his own free will. And furthermore, having taught how the sickness of pustules was brought upon them, which even the magicians—

for the disease fell upon them as well, and they could not stand before Moses on account of the ulcers, for they were ashamed to be seen covered in sores, and being unable to help themselves, they were brought low—he added: "And the Lord hardened the heart of Pharaoh, and he did not listen to them, as the Lord had commanded them." And after a little while, he said to Pharaoh: "For this reason you have been preserved, that I might show in you my power, and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth." And again, after a little while, he said: "For he says, seeing that Pharaoh saw that the rain, and the hail, and the thunders had ceased, he sinned yet again, and hardened his heart, and that of his servants; and he hardened the heart, and did not let the sons of Israel go, just as the Lord had spoken to Moses." ^B These words, just as he spoke, signify the foreknowledge of God—meaning that the God of all was ignorant of none of these things, but declared them from the beginning. Now I have reviewed all these things, wishing to show that Pharaoh was neither of a wicked nature, nor did the Lord God make his mind hard and resistant. For he who inclines now to this side, and now to that, demonstrates the free will of the mind.

But that we may resolve the point in question with some illustration: the sun, by the energy of its heat, melts wax but dries mud; it softens the one, while hardening the other. Just as, therefore, this sun accomplishes opposite results by one and the same power, so too, from the long-suffering of the God of all, some derive profit, while others reap harm; and some are softened, while others are hardened. This the Lord also clarified in the holy Gospels: "For judgment," he says, "I came into this world, that those who do not see may see, and those who see may become blind." ^C This, however, does not reveal the purpose of the Master. For he did not come for the sake of this, that he might render those who see blind; but he revealed what had taken place. "For he himself desires all men to be saved, and to come to the knowledge of the truth." But since human nature possesses the freedom of choice, those who believed enjoyed salvation, while those who did not believe became the authors of their own hell. Thus Judas saw (for he was an apostle), yet was afterward blinded; and the divine Paul, being blind before, afterward received sight. ^D Thus through the advent of the Savior, most of the Jews were blinded, while the Gentiles received sight. Yet it was not necessary on account of this, that some were not going to believe, that the dispensation of our Savior according to the flesh

should not have taken place; for this would have deprived the world of salvation. ^A Thus, too, the most divine Simeon said: "Behold, this one is set for the fall and rising of many in Israel, and for a sign which shall be spoken against." It is, however, necessary to know this: that the God of all has set forth the present life as a stadium for men, so that, by contending in it, they may reveal their own purpose; but in the future age, by making a just judgment, He may crown some as victorious athletes, and punish others as those who have given themselves over to wickedness. And because not all believe in the future life, the God of all very wisely ^B both punishes some living in this life in wickedness, and in turn proclaims others who have been most diligent in piety. For this reason, the divine Apostle called some "vessels of wrath," and others "vessels of mercy," because through the former the Lord God is shown to be One who punishes justly, while through the latter, He pursues those who are diligent in virtue with all care and providence.

Moreover, it is possible to see physicians who cure bodies using cauteries and incisions, and drawing out and removing hidden humors that make a disease more severe, and manifesting latent affections. Thus, too, the God of all reveals the wickedness of thoughts through chastisements. He said this also to Israel in Deuteronomy: "And you shall remember all the way which the Lord your God led you these forty years in the wilderness, that He might humble you, and test you, ^C and that the things in your heart might be made known, whether you would keep His commandments or not. And He afflicted you, and caused you to hunger," and so on. As therefore physicians in turn, when many are present, cut those who labor under an incurable disease—not so much to help them (for they know their disease is incurable) as to teach their students the method of healing—so did God subject Pharaoh, who was indulgent in a most cruel and beastly disposition, to all kinds of punishments, clearly teaching all men that He Himself governs creation, that He justly avenges those who have suffered injury, and justly punishes those who do injustice. For He said this also to Pharaoh himself: "For this reason you have been preserved, ^D that I might show my power in you, and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth."

That the memory of these deeds was spread abroad everywhere, the harlot Rahab testifies, who said to the spies: "Your terror and your trembling has fallen upon us. For we have heard that the Lord your God dried up the Red Sea before your face." Foreigners also testify to this, who, beholding the ark from afar, shouted aloud: "Woe to us! This is the God who struck Egypt."

^A

INTERROGATION XIII.

In order that they might loathe not only the Egyptians, but also their gods, having suffered such things at their hands, and in order that they might obey promptly when commanded to leave. For if, even with these things having happened as they did, they nevertheless recalled the luxuries of Egypt and often attempted to return there, who could have persuaded them to leave Egypt if they had suffered no harm at their hands? ^B

INTERROGATION XIV.

Moses’ wife thought that it happened because one of the children had not been circumcised according to the law of the Hebrews; therefore, she straightway performed the circumcision upon him. Others, however, say that the cause was that Moses, being sent to liberate his own kinsmen, desired to have his wife as a companion on the journey. Those who say this ought to have understood that Moses was forced to take her that he might persuade his father-in-law that he would not despise his wife nor prefer another to her, but not that he was performing the divine command perfunctorily. ^C For as soon as he found an opportunity from the angel, he ordered his wife to return to her own kin. And that this is true, history teaches. For after the exit from Egypt, when they had passed through the Red Sea and had arrived at Mount Sinai, the father-in-law arrived with the wife to him. Thus, therefore, the history narrates: "And Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, took Sepphora, the wife of Moses, after her dismissal, and his two sons, and came to Moses into the desert." ^D Yet the angel was contriving something else while he displayed the naked sword. For since the great Moses feared Pharaoh, and often expressed this fear—at one time saying, "Who am I, that I should go to Pharaoh, king of Egypt?" and at another time, "Choose another who is able, whom you will send," and again, "I am of a slight voice and of a slow tongue"—the angel threatened him with punishment

^A repelling fear with fear, the greater with the lesser; just as if he were saying by this drawn sword: "If you fear Pharaoh, fear me all the more, who can even invisibly inflict a wound upon you."

INTERROGATION XV.

INTERROGATION XVI.

INTERROGATION XVII.

INTERROGATION XVIII.

^A For this reason, God permitted the enchanters to perform certain things, so that the difference might be shown. For they too changed their rods into serpents; but the rod of Moses devoured their rods, and they also turned the water into blood, but they were unable to restore the water to its original nature. They also brought forth frogs, yet they were not able to deliver the houses of the Egyptians from them. And so He allowed them to work with their sorceries to chastise the Egyptians, but no longer to stop the punishment. For since the king of the Egyptians, when being punished by God, was not satisfied with the heaven-sent plagues, but even ordered the enchanters to increase the punishment, God chastised him even through them, as if saying: "Since you delight in being punished, by the labor of my servants I will chastise you, and by your own I will punish you." But seeing him becoming more hardened, He restrained the power of those wizards, so that those who had brought forth the larger animals, namely the frogs, could not bring forth the gnat, the most minute of creatures, but instead confessed that the plague was the "finger of God." ^B Moreover, He afflicted their own bodies with pustules, so that they themselves, and their foolish king, might learn that not only could they not remove the plagues sent by God, but they themselves were punished along with the others. It is therefore most impudent to say that Moses performed those wondrous works by magic, when the magicians themselves cried out that the signs were of divine power. For if that which was performed by him were a phantasm, it behooved them to also produce a phantasm, and to convict their fellow-craftsman. But now they explicitly cry out: "This is the finger of God."

Question XIX.

Why did God bring the first plague of water upon them? ^C First, because the Egyptians boasted of their river and considered it a God, as it provided for them the same use that the clouds do. Then, also because of the infants of the Jews who were cast into it; for the river, turned into blood, accused them of the infanticide that had been committed. For this reason the waters also bubbled up frogs, in place of the children who had been drowned in them. For infants in their crawling sort of imitate frogs; because they are not yet able to use only their feet, they use their hands to make up for the weakness of their feet. ^D The land, however, rotted because of the frogs, since the scars of the Egyptians, from their excessive wickedness, also rotted and became corrupt.

^A Q. XX. If all the water was turned into blood, how did the sorcerers of the Egyptians do the same with their enchantments?

The sea was near to them, but it was only the water fit for drinking that had been turned into blood. They were therefore able to bring seawater into the royal palace and convert it to the color of blood: God, of course, permitting them to act for the reasons we have already mentioned. It should be noted, however, that He brought forth the frogs from the waters, the lice from the dust, and the dog-flies from wherever He willed, so that the Egyptians might learn that it is very easy for God, even without earth and without water, to produce what He wishes. For this reason He also predicts the punishments, so that they might not think these things happen by mere chance, but ^B understand that these are plagues inflicted by God.

Q. XXI. Why, intending to bring the hail, did He warn them to gather their cattle into their houses?

Since the Master is most humane, He tempers punishments with mercy. Moreover, He also knew that some were worthy of pardon; this is what the divine Scripture teaches us: "For he," it says, "who among the servants of Pharaoh feared the word of the Lord, gathered his cattle into his houses; but he who did not regard the word of the Lord, left his cattle in the fields." He brought the hail and the lightning upon them, showing that He Himself is the Master of all elements. For because the Egyptians, as well as the Greeks, thought that some gods were celestial, others terrestrial, others subterranean; and that some ruled the earth, others the sea; and that some had authority over the mountains, and others over the fields—wherefore even the Syrians ^C said: "The God of the mountains is the God of Israel, but He is not the God of the valleys"—the God of all, of necessity, disciplined them not only through the river and the earth, but also through the air and the sea; and He sent thunderbolts upon them from heaven, teaching that He Himself is the Creator and Master of all things, just as the blessed Moses said unto him: "That thou mayest know that the earth is the Lord's, and [thou] and thy servants."

Q. XXII. Why did He slay the firstborn of Egypt?

Because Pharaoh had subjected Israel, the firstborn of God, to excessively harsh slavery; for this ^D

reason, ^A He most justly delivered the firstborn of the Egyptians to death. It must be known, however, that the firstborn also has brothers. For he who is firstborn, or first-begotten, is the first of many. Therefore, let Israel know that he was indeed granted the title of being God's first people. But the nations that have believed have not only obtained salvation, but have also enjoyed the rights of the firstborn: for "The people," it says, "shall excel the people, and the greater shall serve the lesser."

Q. XXIII

The Israelite people endured a long time in Egypt, making bricks, and building walls, and constructing cities. The Lord God therefore desired them to receive a wage for their labors. For this reason, He commanded these things to be done. And let no one think it unjust that the wage was exacted from the Egyptians, when Pharaoh had inflicted injury upon the people of Israel; for they too participated in the injustice, imitating the cruelty of the king.

Q. XXIV

He wished the memory of their salvation to be kept in everlasting remembrance. For this reason, while giving the law, He said: "If thy son asks thee, saying, What is this Passover? Thou shalt say, In this day the Lord God brought our fathers out of the land of Egypt, and rescued our firstborn, when the destroyer struck the firstborn of the Egyptians." ^C For this reason, He commands those who celebrate this feast to assume the dress of travelers. "For," He says, "let your loins be girded, and your sandals on your feet, and your staves in your hands," ^D

^A and you shall eat it with haste. For it is the Lord’s Pascha. ^B Now Philo interpreted *Pascha* as *diabatēria*—that is, sacrifices made for the passing; Josephus, however, as *hyperbasis*—that is, transgression; Symmachus, *hyperbaseis*—that is, transgressions; Theodotion, *phasek*, keeping the Hebrew word unchanged. The Hebrew name signifies the salvation of the firstborn. For He had commanded them to take a hyssop bunch, and having dipped it in the blood of the sacrificed sheep, ^B to smear the doorposts and the lintel, ^C so that when the destroyer entered to strike the firstborn of the Egyptians, seeing the blood, he might pass over the houses of the Hebrews. Not because the incorporeal nature had need of such signs, but because it was fitting that they should learn through the symbol the providence of God, and that we, who sacrifice the immaculate Lamb, should recognize the type described beforehand. He commands them, therefore, to take for the feast not only year-old lambs from the sheep, but also kids from the goats—not that they should sacrifice both at once, but that whoever had a sheep should sacrifice the lamb, and whoever lacked a sheep should sacrifice the kid. He enjoins them to take this on the tenth of the first month, so that they might prepare before the feast, and to sacrifice it on the fourteenth day toward evening. For toward this very evening also Christ the Lord was delivered up to the Jews. And He commanded that it be eaten with wild herbs, in memory of the most bitter life and the most grievous slavery endured in Egypt. By the unleavened bread, He indicates not only the urgency of the departure and the hasty preparation of food, but also that it was not fitting to bring along even a trace of the Egyptian way of life. For so also the Lord explained in the Gospels, saying: "Beware of the leaven of the Scribes and Pharisees." He also commanded those who were sufficient in number to eat a lamb, to sacrifice the Pascha together, instructing them in brotherly love and mercy toward the poor. For this reason, He warns that the remains of the meat should be burned and not kept until the following day; by this means, He compels them to call the needy to the feast to celebrate it in common. But all these things are enigmas of our own mysteries. For we too, with the blood of our Lamb, anoint not only the lintel, but also both the doorposts, purifying and sanctifying our tongue and lips on the outside, and on the inside, according to the intellect, ^D

instead of the lintel the rational faculty, and instead of the two doorposts the irascible and the concupiscible faculties. And it is fitting for us not to eat them raw or boiled, but roasted with fire. For we do not look merely to the letter, but we examine the meaning. Nor do we introduce human cogitations into the divine oracles; for Isaiah also accused some of this, as if they were mixing water with wine. But we use only the divine fire, the grace of the most Holy Spirit. And the command not to leave any of the meat until the next day, we understand in this way: that the future life has no need of symbols. For we shall then behold the very things themselves. But those who understand ^B the divine oracles wrongly, and strive to twist them to their own impiety, break the bones of the lamb. And the fact that He ordered to take the offering not only from sheep, but also from goats, again declares the divine benevolence. For Christ the Lord endured the saving passion not only for the righteous, but also for sinners. And He Himself taught us to understand it in such a way. For He likened the assembly of the saints to lambs, but the assembly of sinners to goats; for the law commanded to offer a goat for sin. And of those who partake in the divine mysteries, some partake as of a sheep, as those who possess perfect virtue; others as of a goat, those who through repentance wipe away the stains of their sins. Thus also our Savior fed those who had gathered, not only with wheat loaves, but also with barley loaves. ^C And the Lord also commanded us to have our loins girded, our feet shod, and our lamps burning, like servants awaiting their master. And while the Hebrews, as they were departing from the Egyptians and being brought into the land of Canaan, held to this manner of dress, we do so as those transitioning from this life into another. Because of this, the divine Paul also encourages us, crying out: "Cleanse out the old leaven that you may be a new lump, as you are unleavened." And he added: "For Christ our Passover has been sacrificed for us." And he further added: "Therefore let us celebrate the feast, not with old leaven, nor with the leaven of malice and wickedness; but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth." Moreover, the God of all ^D long ago pre-announced the salvation of the nations. For He also commanded the proselytes to partake of the Passover. For He called the proselyte a sojourner, and endowed him with equal rights. For He says: "He shall be as one born in the land." And as to what is commanded, that the lamb is to be eaten in one house, the faithful observe,

^A by partaking of the divine mysteries only in the Church of God, and holding the assemblies of heretics in abhorrence.

The Lord God, however, ordained that the firstlings of both oxen and sheep should be offered, reminding them of the salvation of their own firstborn; for He did not Himself stand in need of the sacrifices, but sought the profit of those people. The law itself reveals this: "If your son asks you, 'What is this?' you will say to him, 'With a strong hand the Lord brought us out of the land of Egypt, from the house of slavery. When Pharaoh hardened his heart and would not let us go, the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of men down to the firstborn of livestock. Therefore I sacrifice to the Lord everything that opens the womb, those of the male sex, and all the firstborn of my sons I will redeem. And it shall be as a sign upon your hand, and a lasting monument before your eyes. For with a strong hand the Lord brought you out of Egypt.'" ^B Therefore, each of these things was done for the grace and benefit of the people, and not because God stood in need of them.

Interrogation XXV.

But I consider that the sea was divided only in two, just as the divine Scripture teaches, saying: "And the water was a wall to them on the right hand, and a wall on the left." And that the path was broad, proportionate to the multitude of those crossing; for it says, "He led them in the abyss, as in a wilderness," which seems to indicate the breadth of the open path. ^C Yet that former opinion does not conflict with the reasonings of piety. For both this and that are works of divine miracle; we must, however, follow the truth of the Holy Scripture. And the most just Judge delivered Pharaoh with his whole army to destruction through those waters, because by water he had killed the infants of the Hebrews.

INTERROGATION XXVI.

It is superfluous and useless to inquire about things that have been passed over in silence. It is sufficient for us to know that by means of the wood ^D the bitter water was changed into a sweet quality. And this also prefigures our salvation. For the salutary wood of the Cross has made the bitter sea of the nations sweet.

QUESTION XXVII.

QUESTION XXVIII.

QUESTION XXIX.

VARIOUS READINGS FROM THE LEIPZIG CATENA

[index: entries preserved]

^A

INTERR. XXX. Why is it called Manna?

When the Israelites first saw it, they asked one another, "What is this?" [Exod. 16:15] Hence they gave it that name: "What is this?" for that is what *manna* signifies. And the history teaches this: "For the children of Israel saw it and said one to another, 'What is this?' For they knew not what it was." Thus the question became the name. Now, for the phrase "as a wafer [with] honey," Symmachus translated it thus: "as a sweet confection with honey." 26 The *omer* was a Hebrew measure, which, as the Lawgiver teaches, "was the tenth part of the three measures." 27 According to Josephus, it contains three and a half Attic cotylæ.

^B

INTERR. XXXI. Why did that which was left over until the following day rot?

Because it was a transgression of the law. For, wishing to teach them a life free from anxieties, He promised to provide them every day with the necessary food; but they, lacking faith, kept a portion of what they had gathered for the next day, which therefore rotted. That this did not happen through any fault of the manna is proven by the Sabbath, on which that which had been gathered the day before was preserved unharmed. It is also proven by the fact the portion preserved in the Ark for many generations did not corrupt.

INTERR. XXXII. Why did He not give manna on the Sabbath days?

Since He had commanded them alone to observe the rest of the Sabbath by law, He taught them by the very deed to keep the commandment. However, He did not wish to bring the course of nature to a halt. For the sun rises, and the moon likewise; the clouds pour forth rain, the winds blow, women give birth, and the breeds of brute animals continue.

INTERR. XXXIII. What weapons did they use when they fought against Amalek?

When the Egyptians were drowned, their bodies, along with their weapons, were cast up onto the shore; the Israelites despoiled them and used these in their wars.

^D

INTERR. XXXIV. How did it come about that when Moses' hands were extended, Israel was victorious, but when they were lowered, they were defeated?

While he extended his hands, he was bearing the type of Him who was crucified for us. [Exod. 17:11]

^A The force of the truth was therefore displayed also in that type. For just as when the servant extended his hands, Amalek fell, so too when the Lord extended His hands, the host of the devil was destroyed. And in that same battle, he who was the namesake of our Savior erected the trophy, having at that time received this appellation, and having employed the chosen men as collaborators, just as Christ the Lord employed the holy apostles as ministers.

INTERR. XXXV. What is the meaning of: "You shall be to me a peculiar people above all nations; for all the earth is mine"?

I am the Creator, He says, and Lord of all, and as Creator, I have care for all; but you I have consecrated to myself as a sort of elect people. For this reason He added: "You shall be to me a royal priesthood, a holy nation." For just as He ^B set the Levites, who were also Israelites, above the other tribes and consecrated them to divine service, not because He neglected the others, but so that He might manage the care of them through these men, so too He chose the seed of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob; first, because Christ the Lord was about to spring from them according to the flesh; then, by means of what was being done for them, He might show His own power and teach all men the way of the knowledge of God. After these things were said, "All the people answered and said: All things which God has said we will do, and we will obey." This covenant of the people is like the subscription of a contract; whence, having violated their own agreement, they became liable to the curses of the legislation, from which Christ the Lord has liberated those who have believed in Him. ^C For Christ, he says, "redeemed us from the curse of the law, becoming a curse for us." Symmachus, however, rendered "peculiar" as "elect."

INTERR. XXXVI. Why were they commanded not only to be sanctified, but also to wash their garments when they were receiving the law?

He leads them by the hand to spiritual things through those which are corporeal, and He instills fear and makes them more reverent. For they were calculating from these things that it is much more becoming for the mind to be pure. For this reason also the voices of trumpets, and the sounds ^D of thunders, and the clouds, and the storms, and the fire in the summit of the mountain, and the unspeakable smoke being emitted...

so that by all these things He might soften their stony heart. For since they had witnessed the plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians, but had themselves experienced no specimen of discipline, He terrifies them by these means, as children; so that they might not only love Him because of His immense benefits, but also fear Him through the dread of punishments. For this reason He said also concerning the priests: ^A *“Let the priests who approach the Lord God be sanctified, lest the Lord should depart from them.”* For since it was fitting for them to trust in God, as those to whom the divine office had been committed, He shows how it is especially fitting that those to whom the divine gift is entrusted should be more elevated than earthly things.

INTERROGATION XXXVII

Those who confess one substance of the Trinity observe the law of the divine voice. For they allow nothing else to be worshipped as God ^B besides the divine nature. But those who are infected with the blight of Arius and Eunomius openly transgress the divine law; while they indeed confess the Son to be God, they call Him a created being, and foreign to the divine substance. For when God says: *“There shall be no other gods to you besides Me,”* these men introduce another god.

INTERROGATION XXXVIII

An idol has no subsistence; but a likeness is an image and effigy of something. Since, therefore, the Greeks fashion forms that do not exist, such as Sphinxes, Tritons, and Centaurs, and the Egyptians, in turn, Cynocephali and Bucephali, He calls such ^C fictions of non-subsistent things "idols"; but "likenesses" are the images of subsistent things, such as the sun, the moon, the stars, men, beasts, reptiles, and the like. He forbids worshipping or cultivating all of these. He did not rashly forbid both, but because it often happens that some, being terrified by human fear, might worship them, yet not cultivate them in their soul, He therefore taught that both are impious.

INTERROGATION XXXIX

The Law takes the character of a husband, but the people ^D of a wife.

^A And the Lord God taught us this also, by saying through Isaiah: “What is this scroll of the divorce of your mother?” And by Jeremiah: “As a wife dishonors her companion, so has the house of Israel and the house of Judah dishonored me, says the Lord.” And again: “If a man send away his wife, and she departs and becomes another man’s, will she return to him again? Will not that woman be greatly defiled? But you have played the whore with many shepherds, and you return to me, says the Lord.” And the Apostle also says that “the law rules over a man for as long a time as he lives. For the married woman is bound by law to the living husband; but if the husband dies, she is released from the law of the husband, so as not to be an adulteress by having become another’s. So also you were put to death to the law through the body of Christ, so that you should belong to another, to him who was raised from the dead.” ^B For this reason, He calls Himself 14 a jealous God—using human terminology, but with the intent of terrifying them and compelling them to be prudent. Just as a man having a sluggish wife might warn her, saying, “I am jealous, I cannot bear to see you conversing with another husband,” so even the Master God, wishing to alienate them from the worship of demons, not only called Himself jealous, but even a consuming fire. That such jealousy is a matter of great affection, God Himself declared through Ezekiel, saying: “Therefore my jealousy shall depart from you,”—that is, because I loved you, I made use of jealousy; but having rejected you, I have quenched that jealousy. He declared this same thing through another prophet: “I will not visit your daughters when they play the whore, and your daughters-in-law when they commit adultery.” Jealousy, therefore, is an indicator of love.

INTERROGATION XL ^C *How is justice preserved, when children are punished for their parents?*

The threats of the Master God are greater than the punishments; this is easy to learn from the divine Scripture: “For every uncircumcised male,” it says, “who is not circumcised on the eighth day, he shall be utterly destroyed.” But it is possible to find those who were circumcised perishing in the desert in various ways, while those who had remained uncircumcised attained the promises made to their ancestors; ^D for Joshua circumcised these at Gilgal. Thus, He threatened extermination to households possessing leaven, but He did not carry out the penalty in accordance with the threat. And here, therefore, as

^A one who loves children and is concerned for the care of children, He does not terrify with threats, but says: "Rendering the sins of the fathers upon the children, to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me." For that it is ungodly to attend merely to the naked letter, God Himself demonstrates by ordaining things contrary to the law: "For the children shall not die for the fathers," He says, "nor the fathers for the children, but each shall die in his own sin." And through the prophet Ezekiel He says: "What is this proverb among you, saying: The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge? As I live, says the Lord, this proverb shall no longer be, but the teeth of those who ate the sour grape shall be set on edge; for all souls are mine." And what follows has the same meaning. ^B I, however, think that the threat indicates divine loving-kindness all the more. For it is added: "To those who hate me"—that is, I am longsuffering toward the fathers who have sinned, and likewise I am longsuffering toward the children. But if the descendants and the progeny should emulate the wickedness of their fathers and ancestors, I shall bring upon them the punishment; yet the piety of the ancestors will provide salvation for the lineage for a long time. "For one who shows," He says, "mercy to thousands and myriads, to those who love me and keep my commandments." One might find the truth of the divine oracles in history itself. For in the fifth generation, the sons of Israel, He says, went up out of Egypt. Nevertheless, those who had served the gods of the Egyptians in Egypt did not pay the penalty, neither their fathers nor their grandfathers; but they themselves, having emulated their impiety, were punished, because after such great benefits and the countless miracles performed, they did not cast off their impiety. But their children, having loved God their Savior, enjoyed the ancestral promise. And we ourselves see the truth of the promise made to the patriarchs, for the nations have obtained the blessing through the seed of Abraham. Since, therefore, they were about to worship the calf, He threatens the punishment. ^C

INTERR. XLI. What is meant by: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain"?

Some say that it forbids attaching the title of God to vain things—that is, to idols; others say it forbids swearing falsely. I, however, think that the divine law ordains that one should not pronounce the divine name without some reason, whether for teaching, or for prayer, or for some necessary occasion. ^D For some are accustomed, even

^A while playing and laughing, to pronounce that venerable name with their tongue, just as it happens to fall. This, I think, the divine law prohibits. For if the many are accustomed to reserve their more precious clothing for festival days, how much more is it right to consecrate the divine name to prayers and to the duty of teaching.

^B INTERR. XLII. Why did He honor the Sabbath with rest? He instructed the people in humanity. For He added: “That your manservant may rest, and your maidservant, and your ox, and your beast of burden, and all your cattle, and the sojourner who dwells with you.”

INTERR. XLIII. And why did He not command this to come to pass on another day? One could ask this same thing about any other day: why did God choose that one, and not another? Yet the matter is not without reason, which is also suitable for creating faith in the Jews, who were otherwise incredulous. Namely, that God created all things in six days, but did nothing on the seventh day, but honored this day with a blessing, just as Moses says: “For in six days the Lord your God created heaven and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and He rested on the seventh day, and He sanctified it.”

INTERR. XLIV. What is this: “And if you build an altar for me of stones, you shall not build them cut. For you have cast your knife upon it, and they are defiled.” No one, I believe, will deny that those who fashioned the wood of the tabernacle used iron, and likewise those who fashioned the gold, the silver, and the bronze. That the priests also sacrificed victims with the aid of swords, and flayed them, and divided them, I think this also is beyond controversy. It must be sought, therefore, why iron did not defile all these things, but defiled the cut stones. It is clear that He legislates regarding one thing by using another. For since the Israelites remained in the desert for forty years, constantly departing and changing places, He forbids altars to be built from wrought stones, lest, when they had obtained the promised land, the neighbors might perform the sacrifices of demons upon those altars. For this reason, He commanded altars to be built either of earth or of stones such as nature produces. For either one is easily dismantled.

^A Moreover, that after the construction of the temple it was not permitted to sacrifice elsewhere, the Law itself teaches. But if the Law forbade sacrificing outside the temple, it likewise forbade the building of an altar. Hence, to convict the impious, when that great Elijah was compelled to sacrifice on Mount Carmel, he assembled native stones equal in number to the tribes, and offered the victim upon them, so that that structure could be dismantled as quickly as possible, and no one else offer a sacrifice in that place.

INTERR. XLV. *Why did He command the ear of a Hebrew slave who refused his freedom to be pierced?* ^B He teaches them to prefer freedom above all things. Therefore, he commands him who has put aside freedom and embraces slavery to receive this sign as an ignominy. Moreover, that sign indicates obedience through the sense of hearing, and that it is not permitted to go out beyond the door without the master’s order.

INTERR. XLVI. *Why is it added: "And he shall serve him for ever," when human life is determined?* It is evident from this that "for ever" (sæculum) does not always signify infinite time, but sometimes a definite one. Thus also the blessed David says: "Our time [literally: age/sæculum] is in the illumination of thy countenance." And so he termed the span of human life. ^C

INTERR. XLVII. *For what reason did He command him who had committed homicide unwillingly to flee?* Wishing to heal their minds, which are prone to slaughter, and instructing them that if killing against one's will makes one liable to punishment, much more is he who has committed murder deliberately worthy of punishment. Furthermore, He makes those who cut wood or cast stones more prudent, and He instructs those who perform any other such work to be fearful and anxious, lest even against their will they injure someone standing far off or close at hand. ^D The flight of the one who killed also curbs the anger of the relatives of the slain.

INTERR. XLVIII. *What is meant by "formed"?* They say that when the body has been perfectly fashioned in the womb...

^A then the fetus is endowed with life. For indeed the Creator first formed the body of Adam, and then breathed the soul into him. The legislator therefore ordains that if a pregnant woman suffers a miscarriage in a struggle, if the infant comes forth having been depicted—that is, formed—the event is to be called murder, and the perpetrator must pay the penalty for murder. But if the offspring comes forth unformed, it is not to be considered murder, because the aborted fetus was not yet animated; nevertheless, the cause [of the miscarriage] is to be held liable for damages.

INTERR. XLIX. *Why does He order the goring bull to be put to death?* That by means of irrational animals He might teach rational men what a great evil murder is. ^B

INTERR. L. *Why is he who has stolen a calf ordered to pay fivefold, but he who has stolen a sheep fourfold?* Because greater delicts are to be punished with greater penalties; and thus the Lord taught: "For to whom much is given, much will be required of him."

INTERR. LI. *How is that passage to be understood: "You shall not revile the gods"?* He calls the judges "gods," as those who have been entrusted with the task of judging in imitation of the God of all. And the prophet David taught this more clearly; for when he had said, "God stood in the congregation of gods, and in the midst He judges the gods," he added: "How long will you judge iniquity, and accept the persons of sinners? Judge for the orphan and the poor; ^C justify the humble and the needy. Rescue the poor and the needy: deliver him from the hand of the sinner." Then, accusing them, he added: "They have not known, neither have they understood, they walk in darkness." He shows also His own magnificence. "I said," He affirms, "you are gods, and all of you sons of the Most High. But you die like men, and fall like one of the princes." In the same way, here too: "You shall not revile the gods, and you shall not speak evil of the ruler of your people."

INTERR. LII. *For what reason does He forbid the eating of meat caught by wild beasts?* He teaches them to lead a gentler life, and encourages them to shrink from all ferocity. ^D For wild beasts do not kill first, and then eat. Therefore, a little

^A of leaven is not to be mixed with the Egyptian teachings. Thus, also, the Lord commanded that they should not only care for their friends, but also for their enemies; and that one should not pass by the ox of an enemy that has strayed, but lead it back to the house of the enemy; and that one should lift up the beast of burden that has fallen; and by such benefits, that they should contrive reconciliations. By these things he teaches that he who is the Lawgiver of the Old and New Testaments is one, and that He who gave this Law is the same who also bestowed the evangelical one.

QUESTION LIII.

QUESTION LIV.

QUESTION LV.

of Egyptian teaching be mixed with divine matters. Thus also the Lord says to His holy disciples: "Beware of the leaven of the Scribes and Pharisees."

^B Q. LVI. How is the following to be understood: "You shall not cook a lamb in its mother's milk"?

I have often said that in all things He teaches them humanity. Some, therefore, say that the law forbids eating a newly born animal; others, that it may not be boiled in its mother's milk, for in this way it seems in a certain sense to be cooking the mother as well. Moreover, He forbids one from offering to God the mother and that which was born of her at the same time. He also commanded them that when someone finds a birds' nest, he should not capture the mother with the chicks; for this is to erase the species of birds.

Q. LVII. What is the meaning of, "I will fulfill the number of your years"?

He speaks of the life determined for men; that is, I will cause you to reach a long old age.

Q. LVIII. What does it mean, "I will send hornets before you"?

Just as He sent frogs, and gnats, and dog-flies against the Egyptians, so He sent hornets against the Canaanites and the other nations. This also reveals the surpassing power of God: that even through the agency of tiny creatures, He both assists His own and brings destruction upon their adversaries. This is also what is said by the blessed David: "If my people had heard me, if Israel had walked in my ways, I would perhaps have humbled their enemies for nothing"; that is, most easily and readily I would have destroyed those who were waging war against them.

Q. LIX. How—since God promised to hand over the land to them as far as the river Euphrates—did He not fulfill the promise?

God has made this clearer through Jeremiah the prophet: "For," He says, "I will speak suddenly concerning a nation and a kingdom, to build and to plant; but it shall be that if that nation turns and does what is evil, I will not bring upon it all the good things that I have spoken," and what follows. Therefore, He led them ^C into the land He had promised. But since...

because they did not wish to keep the divine law, He did not deliver the whole land to them, but left some who continually waged war against them, so that being warred upon, they might implore divine assistance. The history of the Judges teaches this in a special way. David, however, subjected even these to the king. For the foreigners paid him tribute, as did the Syria of Damascus and the Syria ^B of Zobah. Solomon also, as long as he was pious, held this dominion; but having declined into impiety, he fell from power. He promised to give these things to them, provided they observed the commandments and the law.

Question LX. Why did God command the tabernacle to be constructed?

The Lord God Himself has rendered the reason, saying: ^C "And you shall make me a sanctuary, and I will appear among you. And you shall make it according to all things that I show you on the mountain, the pattern of the tabernacle, and the pattern of all its vessels." For since He had given the law on Mount Sinai, and it was likely that some would suppose the Divine to be circumscribed by a place, He commanded a tabernacle to be made, so that, by manifesting His presence there, He might teach the people the worship of piety. Just as, when they had received the promised land, He commanded a temple to be built for Him, and legislated for the divine offices to be celebrated there, so that they might not, by following their own ^D will in performing these, fall into the erroneous worship of demons: so too, while they were traveling and crossing the desert, He commanded a tabernacle to be made, which could be easily transferred, in which they might offer prayers and sacrifices. And these things were done for their sake. For when that great Moses remained on the mountain for many days, they spoke thus to Aaron: "Make us gods, who will walk before us"; and having fashioned the image of a calf, they shouted while dancing: "These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you out of the land of Egypt." Therefore, God commanded this tabernacle to be made, [index: entries preserved]

^A in which the priests might perform their sacrifices. But this structure bore the image of creation. For just as the Lord God, having created the heaven and the earth, stretched out the firmament in the middle, dividing the things above from those below, so ^B He ordered that one tabernacle be made, thirty cubits in length and ten in breadth; and by stretching a veil in the middle, in the likeness of the firmament, He divided it into two parts, and called the part toward the entrance the Holy Place, and the part within the veil, the Holy of Holies. And as David says: "The heaven of heaven belongs to the Lord, but the earth He has given to the sons of men" (Ps. CXVII, 16); so the space outside the veil was accessible to the priests; but the interior was untouchable, inaccessible, and a sanctuary. For the law ordained that the high priest alone should enter it once a year. There were also the images of the Cherubim, having the form of the incorporeal powers, and in their midst lay the ark, containing the tablets of the law, the pot of manna, and Aaron’s rod that budded. Upon this was placed the mercy seat, overshadowed by the wings of the Cherubim; and in this God of all was accustomed to make His own appearance. For since the divine nature ^C is formless and shapeless, invisible and incomprehensible, and since it is utterly impossible to craft an image of such a substance, He ordered the symbols of His greatest gifts to be stored within. For the tablets indicated the law that was given; the rod, the priesthood; and the manna, the nourishment in the desert and the bread not made by hands; while the mercy seat was a symbol of prophecy, for from there oracles were rendered. For just as the creator of the creatures is understood in proportion from the magnitude and beauty of his works (Sap. XIII, 5), so through these things the munificent Giver was made known. The inner part of the tabernacle, therefore, held the pattern ^D of the heavenly things, and for this reason it was named the Holy of Holies. And that this is true, the divine Apostle is witness, speaking thus: "For Christ did not enter into sanctuaries made by hands, which are counterparts of the true ones, but into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God for us" (Hebr. IX, 24). And again, while discussing divine hope, he added these things: "Which we have as an anchor of the soul, both sure and steadfast, and which enters into that within the veil, where the forerunner has entered for us, Jesus, having become high priest according to the order of Melchisedech" (Hebr. VI, 19, 20). Therefore, the part inside the veil held the image of the heavenly things, while the part outside the veil held that of the earthly; and for this reason the priests entered into it continually. There was in it, toward the southern side,

^A a seven-branched lampstand, and it had as many lamps placed upon it. These signified the number of the days of the week. And at the north was a golden table, upon which He commanded twelve loaves to be set, and golden bowls, full of incense and salt. In the middle between the lampstand and the table, a golden censer was placed. These things were enigmas of the fruits given to humans from the earth. Before the tabernacle, outside, was the bronze altar, which received the offered sacrifices. This indicates that these things were redundant and not at all pleasing to the God of all. Whence He permitted them to be performed on account of the weakness of the Jews; but He commanded them to be offered outside the tabernacle, as they were not necessary for those within. We, however, perform the liturgy assigned to those within. For we offer to God incense and the light of lamps, and the mystical ministry of the holy table. That the length of the tabernacle was thirty cubits, and the width ten, is easy to discern. ^B For the southern side had twenty boards, and the northern side as many. For other interpreters called the pillars "boards." Since each board was a cubit and a half, the twenty boards amounted to thirty cubits. Likewise, the side looking toward the west had six boards likewise measuring the same, and two in the corners. Thus, the twelve cubits resulting from these, ten filled the inner width, and the other two joined the joints on either side. ^C But He commanded the door to be made at the eastern part, so that the sun itself, rising, might as it were render a certain adoration to the vestibule, immediately casting its rays thither; and those commanded to worship God alone might have the sun behind them, turned toward the tabernacle, and might not worship it, but the Creator of it. The tabernacle, then, was like a wooden structure, having boards joined to one another on every side. They had silver bases, and capitals likewise; and they themselves were plated with gold both inside and outside. And it was covered with various textiles, of colors dyed with different pigments. ^D For one was purple, another rose-colored or dyed with scarlet, another was like a hyacinth; and the fine linen had a white hue. And these were enigmas of the four elements. For the hyacinth is like the air; the rose-colored or scarlet is like the fire; the purple denotes the sea, which nourishes the shellfish whence such color is taken; and the fine linen denotes the earth, whence it is said to grow. He also had goatskin coverings placed over it, and variegated rugs, which would keep out both the rain and the heat. And He no less desired the priests to be variously adorned, so that for the people...

^A they might be an object of admiration, on account of the variety of the representations, and the priests themselves might be instructed as to how they ought to decorate the soul and surround it with the ornament of virtue. He calls the "under-garment" the inner tunic, and the "over-garment" the outer tunic, which He commanded to be of hyacinth color, and called it "talaric" because it reached down to the very feet. To this He also appended golden bells and pomegranates, so that when he was about to enter the innermost part of the tabernacle, and hearing the sound produced by them, he might perform the sacred duties with fear, keeping in mind Him who had commanded these things and who accepted the sacrifice offered in this manner. ^B Therefore, that talaric garment also reflected the color of the air, and for this reason it was hyacinthine, so that he who looked upon it might turn his mind upward. A tiara was placed upon the head, which represented heaven. And a headband covered the forehead, which the Seventy called a miter. Attached to this in the middle was a golden plate, upon which was inscribed the inenarrable name of God, which the Hebrews call the tetragrammaton. And in order to incite the people to reverence, the Lord God obscurely signified this, saying: "You shall write upon it," He says, "Holiness of the Lord." ^C He also commanded that an over-garment be made for him, which the Seventy called the *epōmis* (shoulder-piece); in the book of Kingdoms, however, we find it called by the Hebrew name *ephod*. This had upon each shoulder two very precious stones, upon which were inscribed the names of the tribes. Upon the breast was that which was called the *logion* (breastplate), covering the rational heart. This also had twelve stones fitted to it, distinct in their various colors; and by these, when battle was joined, victory or defeat was indicated; ^D and this is what the history of the Kingdoms teaches. For when the foreigners invaded the people of Israel with a gathered army, Saul did not dare to join battle before he had perceived the indications of victory: "Apply," he said, "the Ephod." Then, when he had noticed that victory would be his, he added, "Withdraw the Ephod," and thus he commanded the people to be armed. Therefore, when the God of all had said: "And you shall place the breastplate of judgment upon the breast of Aaron, and you shall fasten it"

^A to the ephod, he added: "And you shall place upon it the manifestation and the truth." And he called the oracles from thence "the manifestation," and "the truth" the unfailing nature of those oracles. It must be known, however, that because the men of that time were coarser and unable to attain to the intelligible, the all-wise Master contrived their benefit through bodily symbols. We, however, understand by the breastplate the contemplation of the intelligible, and by the ephod the operation of virtue; and we take the harmony and conjunction ^B of the breastplate and the ephod as representing the agreement between faith and good conduct. And the fact that the ephod was placed on first, and then the breastplate linked to it, signifies that good action is the foundation of contemplation.

Q. LXI. For what reason did the priests, when laying hands upon the victims, sacrifice them in this manner?

Not upon all victims would they lay their hand, but upon those being offered for themselves, and especially those for sin. As for other victims, those who brought them laid their hands ^C upon them. This itself indicated that the victim fulfilled the place of the one offering it, receiving the slaughter on his behalf. It is also fitting to note that a calf was offered for the high priest; likewise another calf for the whole people; a goat for the ruler, and a female goat for every individual man. For it is fitting that the male be for the ruler, and the female for the ruled, since God at the beginning subjected the woman to Adam. Now the calf that was sacrificed for sin was burned outside the camp. For this very reason also the Lord Christ, ^D as the divine Apostle says, "suffered outside the gate," and he appended the truth to the type. Moreover, the omentum was offered upon the altar. For this is what it says: "The fat that is upon the belly, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them, and the lobe of the liver," which other interpreters have called the "superfluity." But these are riddles of the passions within us. For the fat covering the belly signifies the disease of gluttony; the kidneys, however, [signify] the pleasures lurking beneath the belly; the extreme part of the liver [signifies] the spirited part. For to that...

^A the lower abdominal pleasures; the lobe of the liver denotes the irascible faculty, for the bile receptacle adheres to it. He commands that all these be consecrated, and as it were shows their wicked powers as delivered unto death. He also ordained that the right shoulder of the ram of completion be offered, commanding that the active virtue, as the right hand and acceptable to God, be offered. The bread, and the wafer, and the libation of wine, indicate the fruits growing from the earth, the first fruits of which it is holy to offer to God.

INTERR. LXII. Quid sibi vult: *In odorem suavitatis est oblatio Domino?* ^B Through human things He teaches divine things. For since we delight in sweet odors, He called the sacrifice performed according to the Law "an odor of sweetness." For that one must not attend to the bare letter, the divine nature itself demonstrates, which is incorporeal, as well as the foul odor of burning bones. For what reeks worse than those? Other interpreters, however, have put "acceptableness" in place of "sweetness."

INTERR. LXIII. For what reason did He ordain that from every sacrifice offered for salvation, the priest should take the right shoulder and the breast? ^C Through the breast, He requires from the priest the rational and contemplative faculty; for the breast is the covering of the heart. And through the right shoulder, He requires in him righteous actions. For faith alone does not suffice for salvation, but it needs works for perfection.

INTERR. LXIV. What is the *hin*? It is a Hebrew measure of wine and oil. It holds, as Josephus says, two Attic *choes*. In these matters one must believe him, as one who accurately knew the measures of that nation.

INTERR. LXV. How are we to understand that which He said when legislating concerning the Sabbaths: *For it is a sign between Me and the sons of Israel in your generations*? ^D Just as when giving circumcision to Abraham He said: *And it shall be a sign between Me and you*; so also when legislating concerning the Sabbath He said: *For it is a sign between Me and the sons of Israel in your generations*. For He was establishing a new kind of society, so that they might preserve the perpetual memory of the Lawgiver, and from the other

^A nations separated them. For just as seals distinguish flocks and herds, so the things unique to the Hebrew commonwealth separated them from others, and taught them to remain close to the Lawgiver.

INTERROGATION LXVI. Why did Aaron mold a calf for the people?

The intention of the deed must be investigated above all else. For by examining the matter in this way, we shall find that he was not altogether deprived of pardon. For when his brother had spent forty days on the summit of the mountain, and the people were acting madly and wishing to return to Egypt, he first tried to restrain their impulse with words. But when he saw that they could not be brought to reason in any way, he asked from the women their golden ornaments, opposing one passion with another—namely, the desire for money and ornaments against the insane love of superstitions. But not even this device extinguished their madness; ^B whence he was compelled to fashion the calf. Yet, having had this intention, he still needed the divine clemency so as to escape punishment, which the most divine Moses revealed in Deuteronomy: "For I prayed," he says, "to the Lord my God for Aaron my brother, and he did not die."

INTERROGATION LXVII. How must we understand that: "And now dismiss me, and being angry with anger against them, I will destroy them, and I will make you into a great nation"?

Words of this kind demonstrate that God is not subject to any passion, but is benign. For whoever is led by anger to do something is also angry at those who admonish him. But God said, "Dismiss me, and being angry with anger against them, I will destroy them." Yet no one waits for someone to persuade him in order to become angry, but rather to be calmed. Therefore, he said these words, "Dismiss me," instead of "restrain me." For since that ^C excellent Moses was ignorant of the iniquity of the people, God revealed this to him and roused him to intercession. Moreover, the words "I will make you into a great nation" signify our own situation. For what did not happen then, came to pass after the advent of our Savior. Yet the Lawgiver, even though God had said that he was capable of completing the embassy on behalf of the people, did not, however, consider himself sufficient to appease the anger of God; but in place of prayers he brought forward the names of the patriarchs ^D and reminded Him of the oaths made to them,

and supplicated that the covenants which had been made might be confirmed.

QUESTION LXVIII.

QUESTION LXIX.

^A taken away, because it is nullified in Christ. But whenever one returns to the Lord, the veil is taken away.” For just as at that time the face of the legislator was filled with divine glory, and the radiance proceeding from it, brighter than lightning, did not allow those who encountered him to look directly at it, but compelled them either to turn their faces away or to close their eyes, and for that reason he always used a veil when speaking to the people, but when he turned to God, he had a naked face: so the Jews, being attentive to the bare letter of the law, do not see the glory, but see only the veil. Those, however, who come to the grace of the Holy Spirit are freed from the veil and behold the glory with which Moses was filled. This is also what the blessed Paul says: “But we all, with unveiled face beholding the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as from the Lord, the Spirit.” For just as clear mirrors reflect the forms of those looking into them, so pure hearts receive the glory of God. Wherefore also the Lord said: “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they themselves shall see God.” And just as Judas, when he had admitted the devil, imprinted the wickedness of that one within himself, so he who approaches divine grace is illuminated by the rays of light flowing from it. And just as he who sits in darkness becomes dark, while he who is in the sun becomes like the sun and luminous, so he who clings to God receives God-like characteristics.

QUESTION LXX.

QUESTION LXXI.

[Question LXXII] ^A

Why did God command Moses to set up the tabernacle on the first day of the first month? Because it was at this season that He created the world. The germination of trees bears witness to this argument. For "Let the earth," it says, "bring forth the green herb, sowing seed according to its kind and likeness, and the fruit-bearing tree producing fruit, whose seed is in it, for likeness according to its kind upon the earth." ^B And at the beginning of spring, both the meadows bloom and the crops ripple, and the trees produce fruit. For this reason, God also at this time delivered Israel from the servitude of the Egyptians; and the archangel Gabriel brought the gospel of the wondrous birth to the holy Virgin. At this season, too, the Lord Christ endured the salvific passion. It was therefore very fitting that the Lord of all commanded the tabernacle ^C to be set up on the first of the first month, both because it was an image of the whole world, and so that He might prepare them for the feast of the Passover, which the Law ordered the Jews to celebrate first. But it was then that they were about to celebrate this feast for the first time in the desert. For it was the second year since their release from servitude.

ON LEVITICUS

[Interrogation I]

For what reason did God command sacrifices to be offered to Him? We have spoken about these things in many places, both in these works which we have written against the Greeks and against the heresies, and also in those against the magi: furthermore in the explanations...

of the prophets, ^A and in the commentaries on the apostolic Epistles. I will say, however, even here in summary, that God is in need of nothing, I do not believe that even those who are very foolish would gainsay. And that He does not desire such sacrifices, He taught through the majority of the prophets. But because the people, having spent a long time in Egypt, had learned to sacrifice to demons, He permitted sacrifices, that He might deliver them from that superstition. For that they delighted in these, the things that happened regarding the calf bear witness. This He also made manifest through the prophet Ezekiel: "I saw you," He says, "perfused in your blood, and I said to you: In your blood live; multiply." He says, therefore, that having seen you rejoicing in the blood of sacrifices, I permitted you to enjoy such a desire.

^B Furthermore, by this means He prepared another medicinal remedy for them. For He commanded that those things which were worshipped by the Egyptians as gods should be sacrificed to Him: of the quadrupeds, the calf, and the goat, and the sheep; and of the birds, the turtledove and the young of pigeons. We are not unaware, then, that the Egyptians worshipped many other things as gods; but of those they worshipped as gods, He assigned the tamer ones to the sacrifices; the rest, however, He called unclean, that they might loathe the latter as impure and not worship them as gods; and that, as for the former, they might not suppose them to be gods by sacrificing them, but might worship only Him to whom it is proper that these be offered.

Because some of them were rich in wealth, but others lived ^C in poverty, He commanded the former to offer a calf, or a lamb, or a goat; but for the latter, a pair of turtledoves or two young pigeons; and for the very poor, a little fine flour mingled with oil. For, framing the law in a manner proportionate to everyone's capacity, He called some of these "gifts," as being offered from a pious mind toward God and not from the necessity of the law; others He called "sacrifices of salvation," and the name itself indicates deliverance from sickness or certain other troubles.

Moreover, sacrifices were offered also for sin, and for a trespass, and for ignorance. Now, "sin" signifies the voluntary transgression of some law; "trespass," an iniquity happening from some chance occurrence. For it would happen that someone, contrary to his intention, might ^D draw near to a leper, or to a dead body, or to one having an issue. "Ignorance," however, has a manifest interpretation: for not all knew all the laws. For nature taught the sins of the soul; but these things, which were appropriate only to the Jews, required teachers. And of these victims, some were...

^A burned, while other very small portions were, such as the omentum of the belly, the kidneys, and the fat upon them, and the lobe of the liver. We have already stated what these things signify. But the sacrifice offered for sin was offered without oil and frankincense. For those who sit in the darkness of sin do not possess the nourishment of light; nor do those who ought to be mourning possess cheerfulness, since, according to the prophet, “Oil makes the face cheerful.” Nor do they possess the sweet scent, those who have not abandoned the stench of wickedness.

But since the law had a shadow of things to come, and not the very image of the things, according to the divine Apostle, and since those who lived under the law were required to serve the pattern and shadow of heavenly things, I do not think I am acting unreasonably if I say that those who offer themselves to God correspond to the various types of irrational victims. For those who embrace a life of poverty and freedom from cares consecrate themselves entirely to the God of all, and show themselves to be both a whole burnt offering and a whole offering, leaving nothing for the present life, but transferring everything to the life that knows no age. Those who are inferior to these assign one part to the altar, one to the priests, and the rest to the needs of the body.

And so, some offer the gentleness of sheep; others, in the manner of easily obedient calves, cheerfully bear the sweet yoke of the Lord; others, imitating goats, provide what redounds from their daily usage—like a kind of milk—to those in need, according to the apostolic ordinance which says, “That your abundance may supply their want.” Some offer the continence of turtledoves, and in like manner flee the yoke of a second marriage. Others, emulating the young of the pigeons, adorn their mind with simplicity and innocence. For He did not ordain that the adults be sacrificed, because this animal is very warm regarding mating, but rather their young, which employ simplicity and have not yet experienced [the sexual] union.

However, the patriarch did not divide the birds, nor does the lawgiver command them to be divided. For those who are "winged" in mind, loving God with their whole heart, do not divide it between earthly and heavenly things, but send it entirely upward. If we interpret the sacrifices in this way, we shall find the law concerning them both very appropriate to the weakness of the Jews and not useless to evangelical perfection. ^D And that these things are to be understood in this way, the divine Paul has taught us, who, having cited the law given concerning oxen, which forbids muzzling the mouth of the ox that treads the grain, added: “Is it for oxen that God is concerned? It is certainly for our sake that he says it: for it was written for our sake, because the plowman should plow in the hope of [partaking of the crop].

and the thresher should partake of his hope in peace. Therefore, the sensible and superficial level of the Law is suitable for the Jews, while the spiritual level is suitable for those who have embraced the evangelical way of life. ^A It should also be noted that for the burnt offerings the victims were male, for perfection belongs to men, whereas those sacrificed for sin were female; for when the ruling faculty in us is weakened, the passions prevail. It must also be noted that it was not lambs but goats that were offered for sin. The Master Christ also indicates this in the Gospels, ^B likening the righteous to lambs and sinners to goats. Burnt offerings were also brought from birds, because even those in poverty can lead a perfect and philosophical life. But just as neither the skin nor the dung of the quadrupeds was offered to God, so also the crop and the feathers of birds were cast far from the camp. Nor were these cast out haphazardly, but were thrown into a certain clean place, where the ashes of the altar were also accustomed to be placed. Theodotion called the crop a “follicle,” while Aquila interpreted it as the “alimentary part,” because it receives food and supplies it to the other parts of the body; hence the Seventy called it the “prolobos” (crop), inasmuch as it receives the food in advance. ^C It is also worth noting that He calls the fine flour brought, along with the loaves baked in the oven, and those baked on the hearth, and the flat cakes from the frying pan, a “sacrifice,” comforting the poor with the name, so that they might not be dejected on account of lacking animals. It should also be noted that He calls the person who offers an animal a “man”: “If any man of you,” He says, “brings an offering to the Lord, from the cattle, from the oxen, or from the sheep, he shall bring it to Him.” But He calls the one who brings fine flour a “soul”: “For if a soul,” He says, “brings a gift of sacrifice to the Lord, his gift shall be fine flour.” For the rational being offers the irrational, but the soul offers the inanimate. He forbids fermented loaves to be offered, for the reason I have already stated: for it is not fitting to have anything that tastes of the Egyptian way of life. ^D He also forbids honey to be offered on the altar, because, as some hold, the bee settles in impure places and gathers from everywhere the material for making honey. Some, however, have said that we are instructed thereby that sacrifices should be paid from our own labors, according to the counsel of Solomon, by which it is said:

^A « Honor the Lord with your righteous labors, and offer him the first-fruits of your fruits of righteousness. » But the fruit of the bee, they say, is not our own labor. Yet this statement does not possess accuracy, for the keeping of bees is a laborious work for men. For some occupy themselves with farming, others with the care of flocks, and some with trade, others with bee-keeping. I suppose, therefore, that by the leaven, the oldness of wickedness is hinted at; by the honey, that pleasure is forbidden. ^B However, he commanded that the first-fruits of these also be offered to the priests; for they offer intercessions for our wrongdoings, whence he said through the prophet concerning them: « They eat the sins of my people. » He commands that salt be cast upon the sacrifices, signifying through this the discerning faculty of the soul. The sacrifice of Cain was lacking in this; wherefore he heard from the God of all: « If you offered correctly, but did not divide correctly. » And the divine Apostle sets down a law, saying: « Let your speech be always seasoned with salt. » And the Lord said to the apostles: « You are the salt of the earth; but if the salt has lost its savor, with what shall it be seasoned? » He commands that all victims be offered blameless and without spot, ^C although they are different and are offered in different ways. Through these things he teaches that each way of life must be blameless. Those who have embraced virginity should live according to its laws; those who have chosen the yoke of marriage should not stain the bond of this union through their mutual relationship; those who have preferred the ascetic life should observe the rule of perfection. And to speak in summary, both the rich, the poor, slaves, and masters must in their own roles maintain a life that is incorrupt and irreproachable. As for what was sacrificed, excluding the holocausts, some parts were offered ^D to the altar, while other parts were given to the priests; for which reason the divine Apostle said that they share in the altar. The remaining portions of the meat were allotted to the use of those offering them. To the holocausts, however, there were added the parts offered individually, such as the kidneys, and the fat, and the lobe of the liver; and from some victims, the loin also, or according to other interpreters, the tail. Since we who are imperfect use those who are perfect in virtue as intercessors, and through them offer our prayers to God. The one who was offering the victim would lay his hands upon its head, as if [offering] his own actions (for hands denote actions), for which, of course, he was offering the victim. He commands, moreover, to abstain from blood and fat.

and declares that both are to be offered to the altar. For the former is the cause of life, while the latter is indicative of virtue; ^A and to dedicate both to God is most just. He commands the high priest who has transgressed some law to sacrifice a blameless calf, and to offer to the altar what we have previously mentioned, but to burn the flesh and the hide, along with the dung, outside the camp. This signifies that sin is alien to the sacred precincts. And if the whole people has dared to commit such a transgression, He has ordained that an equal sacrifice be offered, teaching how great is the dignity of the priesthood; for He has set it as equivalent to the whole people. ^B But for a ruler who has transgressed some law, He commanded not a calf, but a buck, that is to say, a yearling kid, to be offered. So far does he who has been entrusted with bodily rule fall short of the high-priestly dignity. But if he who sinned is neither a priest nor a ruler, He decreed that a she-goat should be sacrificed. For to the ruler, the male is appropriate, but to the subject, the female, as we have said in the former parts.

But as for him who has touched any unclean thing among those that are prohibited, or who has heard someone swearing and has not convicted the one who breaks the oath, or who has himself, with an oath added, promised that he would do or offer something to God, ^C but in deed has not performed what he had promised in word, He commands him first to confess the sin, then to offer a ewe-lamb or a she-goat, and by this means to render God propitious to him. If, however, he should be poor, He commands him to offer a pair of turtledoves or two young pigeons. And if he has not even these at his disposal, [He commands him] to bring a small [measure of] fine flour without oil and frankincense. For oil is indicative of gladness, and frankincense of sweet odor: and sin is stripped of both. ^D Most appropriately, [the Lawgiver] has joined together the touching of an unclean thing, and concealing the sin of one who has sworn and broken his oath. For indeed, the pure man is defiled if he touches unclean things; and he who has not sworn is a participant in the sin of the perjurer if he does not reprove his lie. Yet it is proper to admire the goodness of the Master, in that He does not punish as ungrateful or as a perjurer him who has promised to offer something and has confirmed the promise with an oath, but has not fulfilled it in deed, but heals him with a small penalty.

^A

QUESTION II. What is this: "If any one suffer an oversight, and sin unwillingly, withdrawing something from the holy things of the Lord" (Lev. 5:15)?

It frequently happened that someone, occupied with other matters, did not at the proper time offer what was consecrated to God, such as the firstborn, or the first-fruits, or the vows. Him who has thus fallen into error, He subjects to a heavier penalty. For He orders him to pay first what is owed to God, having added a fifth part to the just value; then, for the transgression, to offer a ram worth fifty shekels for a sacrifice, and thus to obtain the remission of his sin. Having legislated these things and similar ones concerning those who have sinned unwillingly, He commands also those who have sinned willingly, and those who have received a deposit and denied it, or have used some injustice and by a false oath have increased the ^B sin, first to restore to those who have been wronged what they had unlawfully taken away, and to add a fifth part to the principal; then thus to offer a ram and render God propitious to himself. The blessed Zacchaeus also did this. For he returned fourfold what he had taken by injustice; then he gave half of his own goods to the poor (Lk. 19:8).

QUESTION III. Why did He command the victim offered for the priest to be entirely consumed by fire?

By this, He teaches that the priest must be perfect, ^C and not divided, but that he has dedicated himself entirely to God, the God of all.

QUESTION IV. Why did they sacrifice also the sin offerings in the place of the burnt offerings?

For the encouragement of the offerers, that they might know that they are not alienated from the holy things, since they are healed through repentance. For this reason, He called them "most holy."

QUESTION V. What is this: "Everyone who touches its flesh shall be sanctified" (Lev. 6:27)?

He teaches them reverence, and commands them to approach divine things with fear, and orders them to stand far from the sacred things. But for him who ^D has dared to draw near, and then received a drop of the blood, He commands that he must reside in the temple

^A properly, so as to be no longer his own master. I say "reside," not that he should perform priestly functions, but that he should perform other service. For this reason, He commands garments that have received drops of that blood to be washed, and vessels, if they be of bronze, to be carefully scoured, but if they be of earthenware, to be broken.

INTERR. VI. *Why does He forbid eating the victims kept until the third day, and inflict a penalty upon one who transgresses the law, declaring that such a sacrifice is void?*

He wishes them not to feast alone, but also to bestow a share of the meat upon the needy. For this reason, He commands them to partake of those meats on the first and second days, but that what remains should be committed to the fire, so that, compelled by this necessity, they might have the poor as partners in their feast. ^B

INTERR. VII. *For what reason does He forbid one who has touched a flow of seed, a leper, a carcass, or any other of those things which are called unclean, from eating the meat of the sacrifice?*

By these slight things, He cures more serious afflictions. For if natural things defile according to the Law, much more so do those which proceed from the will, which are properly called contrary to the law. That these things are so, what follows bears witness. For when He had commanded all fat to be offered to the altar, He set apart the fat of carcasses and that which was torn by beasts for the use of men. That person, therefore, who had touched such fat was unclean. ^C Hence it is clear that the Law legislates one thing by means of another.

INTERR. VIII. *To what end did He anoint the right ear of the priest, and likewise the right hand and foot, with blood and oil?*

These things were a type of our blessings: the blood, a type of the saving blood, and the oil, a type of the most holy chrism. The right ear was a symbol of approved obedience; the hand and the foot, [symbols] of virtuous actions. For this reason, then, the right hand and the right foot were anointed. For there are also left-handed actions, and there is a harmful obedience.

INTERR. IX. *How is the "strange fire" to be understood?*

History has taught us that when the first sacrifice was celebrated, the victims were consumed by divine fire. This fire, indeed, the Lord God commanded to be kept ^D inextinguishable, and both by night and by day...

to be supplied with wood, so that fire made by human hands might not be mixed with the divine fire. Since, therefore, Nadab and Abiud, the sons of Aaron, transgressed this law and brought in fire made by human hands, the divine fire consumed them. By these things we are taught not to quench the Spirit, but to fan into flame the grace which we have received, and to introduce nothing alien into the Holy Scripture, but to be content with the teaching of the Spirit, and to abominate the heresies—some of which have added fables to the divine oracles, while others have preferred their own impious reasonings to the sense of Scripture.

Question X.

Question XI.

^A denotes the meditation upon divine oracles. For just as the sheep and creatures similar to it continually ruminate their food, so does the diligent man who loves God cry out to the God of the universe: “How I have loved thy law, O Lord! It is my meditation all the day.” Just as among animals some both have cloven hooves and ruminate their food, while others do neither—as the donkey, the mule, the horse, and wild beasts—and others perform the one but not the other—as the pig, which does not ruminate, and others that ruminate but do not split the hoof, such as the camel and the hare—so too among men it is possible to find some who are perfect, who embrace the meditation of divine oracles and diligently cultivate virtue; others who are imperfect, who pronounce the divine oracles only with their lips, but are unable to split the hoof like the camel; others who have not yet been initiated into piety, who have not touched the divine oracles, but are studious of good works; and others, finally, who are entirely destitute of both faith and good action. ^B Furthermore, it calls those among the water-dwellers clean which are endowed with scales and fins, for these swim upon the surface of the water, whereas those which are not of this kind grovel below in the mud. They are clean, therefore, among those endowed with reason, as many as do not cleave to earthly things, but, having the wings of faith, are protected by the bastion of virtue. For what the scale is to fish, this faith is to men. The blessed Paul clothes us with these, calling them the wings of grace and the armor of the Spirit. ^C But concerning birds, he asserts those to be unclean which are birds of prey, and those which eat carrion, and those which delight in darkness; teaching us both to abstain from covetousness, and to turn away from the foul food of sin, and to hate the darkness. That we have not understood these things in this way without cause, the history of the Acts bears witness: “For the blessed Peter,” it says, “saw a linen sheet let down by four ends, in which were all the four-footed animals of the earth and the birds of the air; and he heard a voice saying, ‘Rise, Peter, kill and eat.’ Then, when he had said, ‘By no means, Lord, for I have never eaten anything common or unclean,’ the Lord God said, ‘What God has cleansed, you must not call common.’ ” ^D And that these things were said for the sake of Cornelius, who was a Gentile and desired to be saved, the following verses demonstrate. The Lord also said to the apostles: “Many will come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves.” And to the Jews:

“Brood of vipers.” And the Apostle: “Beware of dogs.” And to the Ephesian presbyters: “I know that after my departure, grievous wolves will come in among you, not sparing the flock.” And the prophets call some men “horses inflamed with lust,” and others “serpents and offspring of flying vipers.” And again the Lord: “The kingdom of heaven is like a net that was cast into the sea and gathered of every kind of fish.” And, “Where the corpse is, there the eagles will be gathered together.” The interpretation, therefore, harmonizes with the intent of divine Scripture. We, then, receive this profit from these things. For to the Jews, through these same things, another kind of benefit was brought. For by dividing the land animals, and the birds, and the water-dwelling creatures into two, and by calling some unclean and others clean, He persuades us not to consider any of these to be God. For how could anyone in his right mind call that God, which he either turns away from with hatred as unclean, or which he himself eats once it has been offered to true God, ^A whom he who is disgusted turns away from—or is that which is offered to the true God, and eaten by Him?

INTERROGATION XII.

And from this it is clear that nothing is by nature unclean, but that for a certain reason some were called unclean and others clean. For if they were impure by nature, it would have been necessary for the bronze and wooden vessels to be broken as well. But since for another reason He called them unclean, He commands those that are more valuable to be washed and the cheaper ones to be broken; by the former, confirming the law of uncleanness, and by the latter, revealing the intent of the law. For this reason, He also commands ovens and cooking pots to be destroyed if any of these animals has fallen into them; and He asserts that the water that is in vessels is unclean if a carcass has fallen into it, but the water of a fountain or a cistern is not in the same way; for He limits such things by small losses. And we learn again how great an evil sin is, since it brings upon one that true defilement. ^B

INTERROGATION XIII.

Because the moisture of the gore [blood] makes the seed ready to receive it. But He especially calls those animals unclean which crawl upon their bellies; for the serpent is the author of evil and the minister of devilish deception.

^A QUES. XIV. Why does the law say that she who has given birth to a male is unclean for forty days, and she who has given birth to a female for twice that number?

We must examine the goal of the Law. Frequently it teaches one thing by means of another, and this is easy to learn from this passage. For if the woman who has given birth is unclean, then the pregnant woman is surely also unclean. I think, therefore, that the law commands her to rest, as one who has labored greatly and endured bitter pangs of childbirth. But if the law had expressed this simply in these terms, men would never have restrained their desire; however, hearing that she is unclean, they avoid intimate relations, that they might not contract uncleanness. Therefore, the law extinguishes the desire by the mention of the uncleanness. Some, however, have interpreted the distinction of the days by saying that women endure greater pain when they give birth to female children; consequently, the law has allotted to them twice as much time for rest.

^B QUES. XV. What is the meaning of the law enacted concerning leprosy?

Through bodily afflictions it indicates the diseases of the soul, and through things that are committed involuntarily, it reproves those that are voluntary. For if natural things are in some way seen to be unclean, much more so are those things which depend on the will. Furthermore, it sets forth the various species of leprosy, because there are also distinctions among sins; and there is an origin of leprosy, just as there is an origin of sin. And just as the priest discerns the leprosy, so also must he be the judge of the sins of the soul. One is called a leper who has a variation in color; thus, vice, when it takes hold of the soul, renders it leprous.

^C QUES. XVI. Why does [the law] proclaim the one who is completely covered in leprosy as clean?

This law, too, is full of humanity. For just as it stipulated that a vessel into which a carcass has fallen is unclean, but that it is not so if it has fallen into a spring or a cistern; so it separates him who is speckled in color from others, as one who still has hope of purification; but him who has become entirely white, it commands to associate with others, so that he might not live his whole life separated from other human beings. And this is also a type of spiritual things. For the divine law does not even permit the faithful to eat with those who sin; yet it does not forbid them to dine with unbelievers who invite them to a feast. For the divine Apostle speaks thus: "If any of the unbelievers invites you and you desire to go, eat everything that is set before you, without raising any question," and what follows. But concerning those who sin- ^D

- ^A gers, he said: "If any one who is named a brother is a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolater, or a drunkard, or a reviler, or an extortioner, with such a one do not even eat." And again: "Withdraw yourselves from every brother who walks in disorder." This one, therefore, is like the one who is partially leprous; but the unbeliever is like the one who has lost all his natural color. Yet we both converse and associate with such as these; but with those others, we do not. And a witness to this is the divine Apostle: "For I wrote to you," he says, "not to associate with fornicators; not at all with the fornicators of this world, or with the covetous, or extortioners, or idolaters, but if any one who is named a brother," and what follows. He has termed him clean, however, who has turned entirely ^B white, not as one who has a healthy body, but as one who can no longer defile those who approach him according to the law.

INTERROGATION XVII.

Why does he command the leper to have his head uncovered and his clothes torn?

So that he may be known, and that those who approach him may not partake of the uncleanness. ^C Thus, the Apostle said concerning those who sin: "Withdraw yourselves from every brother who walks in disorder, and not according to the tradition which you received from us." And: "If any one who is named a brother is a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolater, or a drunkard, or a reviler, or an extortioner, with such a one do not even eat."

INTERR. XVIII.

How is it to be understood that leprosy can exist in garments?

God provided many such instructions for them. ^D Immediately, for instance, even concerning leprous houses, He said thus: "When you have entered into the land of the Canaanites, which I give to you, and I put the mark of leprosy in the houses of the land of your possession," and what follows. He teaches through these things that the plagues were sent by God, sometimes occurring on garments, sometimes on houses; and these demonstrate the ineffable benevolence of God.

^A For when men sinned, He brought plagues upon their garments and houses, offering, through these things, healing to those who possessed them. The house of Israel is similar to the leprous house; for those who sinned, like certain leprous stones, were often taken away, sometimes by the Assyrians, sometimes by the Babylonians, and at other times by the Macedonians. And because they labored under an ingrained leprosy, the Lawgiver commanded that the house be utterly destroyed. Therefore, those who enter into their synagogues are impure, as if they were entering into a leprous house. ^B

Question XIX.

They contain the type of the saving passion. For just as one of these was sacrificed, and the other, dipped in the blood of the one sacrificed, was set free, so too was the Lord Christ crucified for the leprous humanity, with His flesh enduring death, while His divinity claimed for itself the suffering of humanity. And just as the leper was shown to be bright and clean when he had been sprinkled with the blood of the sacrificed sparrow mixed with pure water, together with cedar wood, hyssop, and twisted scarlet, ^C so too he who believes in Christ the Savior, and is cleansed by the water of the most holy baptism, is washed clean of the stains of his sins. The cedar wood, which is not at all subject to corruption, represents the divinity that is free from suffering; the twisted scarlet represents the humanity consisting of soul and body; and the hyssop represents the warmth and sweet fragrance of the Holy Spirit. For through these, those who are baptized are liberated from the leprosy of the soul. The [hemina] (or log) of oil signifies the spiritual anointing. Now, the oil with which the right ear, the right hand, and the right foot were anointed signifies that the hearing must be dedicated to right discourses, and the hand and foot to right actions; and that which is applied to the head indicates the consecration of the rational faculty. ^D Furthermore, he who remained a leper lived outside the camp, just as he who sins without repentance is cast out of the Church.

Question XX.

I have already said that He instructs us through natural things regarding the vices of the soul.

^A For if the discharge which occurs according to nature is impure, ^B how much more so is illicit lust? And He teaches us again to avoid the sexual unions of such people (8). For He said that whoever approaches one having a discharge is impure. That none of the things which happen according to nature is truly impure, the law itself indicates (9). For if one having a discharge touches an earthen vessel, He commands that this be broken; but if it be bronze or wooden, that it be scoured with water. Yet these also ought to have been broken similarly to the earthen ones, if indeed he had been truly impure to whom this affliction occurred. Thus He also says that he who has a nocturnal emission (10) is impure, as well as those who join together by the law of marriage, even though He Himself laid down the law concerning marriage, and as the first law (11): "For this reason," He said, "a man shall leave his father and his mother, and shall be joined to his wife; and the two shall become one flesh." How then does He call one who joins according to the law impure? But it is clear that He teaches the moderation of union according to the law, and trains us that the union should be for the sake of begetting children, not for the sake of pleasure. For this reason He calls those who join together impure, and commands them to be purified (13), in order to hinder the continuity of sexual union by the occupation of purification. But the divine Apostle, writing to the perfect, says: "Marriage is honorable, and the bed undefiled; but fornicators and adulterers God will judge" (15).

QUESTION XXI. Why does He call her who naturally discharges the surplus of blood impure? ^C We say the same things regarding her as we said regarding the one having an emission of seed. And in addition to these, that no one may join himself to such persons. For some say that from such a union, damage and leprosy are born, as that discharge corrupts the bodies being formed. For this reason He says that he who comes into contact with such a woman is impure. But He explained the causes of such laws briefly, saying: "And you shall keep the children of Israel separate from their impurity, and they shall not die for their impurity, in their defiling My tabernacle that is among them" (17). If then He said that involuntary things defile, it is clear that voluntary things are much more detestable (18). And these things were indeed very fitting for them, ^D as they were most lascivious and wickedly libidinous.

^A For that which is transgressed is not great, and what is observed made them more fit for the perfect things.

INTERR. XXII. When did the high priest enter the Holy of Holies?

In the day of atonement, which God commanded to be celebrated on the tenth day of the seventh month. For He said, He says, "The Lord said to Moses: Speak to Aaron your brother, and let him not enter at all times into the sanctuary within the veil, to the face of the propitiatory, which is upon the ark of the testimony, and he shall not die: for I will appear in a cloud upon the propitiatory." ^B From this it is evident that God the Master exhibited His own presence in the propitiatory; and demonstrating His own goodness, He was seen not in darkness and smoke and fire, just as to Israel, but in a light-form cloud. He also taught the manner of the sacrifices which the high priest needed to use, having ventured into the inner sanctuary. For He commanded him to sacrifice a calf for sin, and a ram for a burnt offering; and these he was to offer for himself, but for the whole people he was to take two goats for sin and one ram for a burnt offering. He also commanded [(20)] to divide the goats by lot, and to sacrifice one, but to send the other into the desert.

Some, having understood this foolishly, supposed there was a certain emissary demon, because He said, "One to the Lord, and one to the emissary." But they supposed this out of much foolishness. For how could it be that He who said, "There shall not be for you other gods besides Me," and, "You shall not worship nor serve another god besides Me" (21) ^C, would command an equal sacrifice to be given to a certain demon (22)? But they ought to have turned their mind to the fact that He also commanded the goat that was being sent away to be offered to Himself. "For you shall take," He says, "the living goat before the Lord, to make atonement over it, [and] to send it away for the emissary into the wilderness." This shows that the goat itself was called "emissary," as being sent away into the desert. For the following things also show this: "And the goat shall take upon itself their iniquities into the wilderness" (c). Furthermore, Symmachus translates "emissary" as "To the goat departing," so that it might be sent away; but Aquila, "To the goat being sent away into the wilderness." Therefore, it was not sent to any god or demon; but both were indeed offered to God, ^D

sent into the wilderness. ^A It was not, therefore, sent to any god or demon, but both were offered to God; and while one was sacrificed, the other, ^B taking upon itself the sins of the people, was sent into the wilderness. For just as in the purification of a leper, one of the birds was sacrificed, and the other, dipped in its blood, was set free, so too, when two goats were offered for the sins of the people, one was sacrificed and the other was sent away. These, again, were types of the Lord Christ; of these two animals, they were taken not as two persons, but as two natures. For since it was not possible for the mortality and the immortality of the Lord Christ to be depicted in a single goat (for the goat is only mortal), He necessarily commanded that two be brought: so that the one being sacrificed might figure the passible nature of the flesh, while the one being set free might manifest the impassible nature of the Godhead. In this way also the blessed David, predicting the passion, the resurrection, and the ascension into the heavens of the Lord Christ, says: ^C "O God, when Thou didst march forth before Thy people, when Thou didst go through the wilderness, the earth was shaken; for the heavens also dropped." (Ps. LXVII, 7, 8.) Now we have been taught that when the Lord Christ was being crucified, the earth shook and the rocks were split, and the heaven, through the darkening of the sun, signified the excess of impiety. And the wilderness was a figure of death. For this reason He said: "When Thou didst go through the wilderness." But let no one assume it is inappropriate that goats should prefigure the passion of the Savior, since the great John called Him the Lamb. But let him consider rather that He offered Himself not for the righteous only, but also for sinners. The Lord compared the company of sinners to kids. "For He shall set," He says, "the lambs on the right hand, and the kids on the left." (Matth. XXV, 33.) And in the law, a kid was offered for sin. And the Lord Himself called the bronze serpent a type of Himself: "For as," He says, "Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, so must the Son of man be lifted up, that whoever believes in Him should not perish, but have eternal life." (Joan. III, 14, 15.) If, therefore, the type of the goats is inappropriate, that of the serpent is much more so. These things, then, were pre-teaching the salvation of the world. And as for the Jews, as if they were infants, He used to soothe them by carrying the sin away into the wilderness. For He was reminding them of the transgressions often daringly committed in the wilderness ^D and of the ineffable benevolence of the Lord, through which, having avoided just punishments, they entered into the promised land. Having commanded these things to be done in this way, He also teaches in what manner it is fitting for the high priest to enter into the Holy of Holies. "Ad-

"Aaron," He says, "shall bring forward the calf for the sin offering which is for himself 51, and he shall make atonement for himself and his house; and he shall slaughter the calf for the sin offering which is his own 52. And he shall take a censer full of burning coals of fire from the altar before the Lord, and he shall fill his hands with incense of subtle compounding; and he shall bring it inside 53 the veil 54; and he shall place the incense upon the fire before the Lord, and the vapor of the incense shall cover the mercy seat which is upon the testimonies, and he shall not die." It is clear from this that the altar of incense was situated outside the veil. For if it were inside, he would not have been commanded to take the burning coals into the censer, and to bring this incense inside the veil 55. The blessed Luke also taught us this, when narrating the events concerning Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist. For at that time he too had entered into the Holy of Holies 56 and enjoyed an angelic vision 57. ^B He also commanded 58 [the high priest] to sprinkle with his finger seven times before the mercy seat some of the blood of the calf and of the goat. For because life revolves in seven days, and daily, so to speak, we commit small or great offenses, a sprinkling of blood equal in number to the days was offered for the trespasses occurring in them. He says this, that not only they, but the tabernacle also, must be purified. "For he shall make atonement," He says, "for the Holy of Holies 59 from the impurities of the sons of Israel, and from their transgressions, concerning all their sins; and thus he shall do 40 for the tabernacle of testimony, which is built among them in the midst of their impurity." He also commanded that no one should be present while this liturgy is being performed by the high priest. He mentions also the time when it is fitting for these things to be celebrated. ^C "On the tenth day of the month," He says, "you shall afflict your souls; and you shall do no work, neither the native nor the proselyte who resides among you. For on this day he shall make atonement for you, to cleanse you from all your sins before the Lord, and you shall be cleansed." He called it a Sabbath of Sabbaths, [a] rest for you, and you shall afflict your souls by an everlasting law [k]. He furthermore called it a Sabbath of Sabbaths, just as he said Holy of Holies, for this feast is far more celebrated than the Sabbath. He called the fasting an affliction. Then he adds: "Once in the year it shall be done according to the rite which the Lord established [l] for Moses." ^D Moreover, this also prefigures the dispensation of our Savior according to the flesh. For just as once in the year the high priest entering into the sanctuary

^A performed this sacrifice: so did the Lord Christ, after He had once undergone His saving passion, ascend into heaven, having found eternal redemption, as the divine Apostle maintains.

QUESTION XXIII.

He knew the impiety of certain people, and that they were about to offer victims to demons. Therefore, He decreed that whoever wished to sacrifice a calf, or a sheep, or a goat, should bring it to the doors of the tabernacle, and pour out the blood, and then share in the meat at home; and whoever did not do this, He commanded to be accused as if guilty of murder. "For blood," He says, "shall be reckoned to that man; he has shed blood, that soul shall be destroyed from among his people." And that the law has this purpose in view, what follows will teach: "For," he says, "the priest will offer the fat for an odor of sweetness to the Lord. And they will no longer sacrifice their sacrifices to vain idols, after whom they have gone a-whoring. A perpetual statute shall it be for you throughout your generations." This law obtains among the Jews to the present day. For the priest himself slaughters the animals ^C which are eaten. He further forbade the eating of blood, and provided the reason: "For the soul," he says, "of all flesh is its blood, and I have given it unto you upon the altar to make atonement for your souls; for its blood shall make atonement in place of its soul. Therefore I have said to the sons of Israel: No soul of you shall eat blood, nor even the proselyte who is joined to you shall eat blood." Just as you, he says, are endowed with an immortal soul, so does the irrational animal have blood in place of a soul. For this reason, He commands the irrational soul—that is, the blood—to be offered in place of your rational and immortal soul. If you eat this, you are eating a soul; for it fills the place of a rational soul. ^D For this reason He called the eating of it murder. On account of this, He also forbids eating animals that have died, because the blood has not been separated from the body.

QUESTION XXIV

God would never have forbidden what no one has ventured to do; and that such is the case, the preamble of this law bears witness. For He said thus: "According to the customs of the land of Egypt, in which you dwelt, you shall not do; and according to the customs of the land of Canaan, to which I am bringing you, you shall not do; and according to their laws you shall not walk." Having said these things, He teaches what was perpetrated by them, and forbids such practice. And that many such things are dared, even the Persians bear witness to this day, who not only with sisters, but also with mothers and daughters, unite by the law of marriage; and many others also dare other lawless deeds.

QUESTION XXV

QUESTION XXVI

Lest it should abhor you, He says, just as it abhorred the Canaanites; that is to say, "Just as I utterly destroyed them on account of their many lawless deeds, and delivered their land to you, so I will punish you, if you have committed similar deeds."

""

Quest. XXVII.

I have often said that God teaches intellectual matters through sensible ones. He therefore forbids the mating of different species—for example, a horse and an ass—so that this unlawful mixture may not pass from irrational animals to those endowed with reason. For this same reason, He calls the garment woven of wool and linen "adulterated," teaching us not to practice contrary actions. That He does not speak of the garment as being adulterated, but through this designates the action, is proven by [the fact that] the coverings of the Tabernacle were constructed of various threads. One must understand the matters concerning the vineyard in the same way. The Apostle also forbids association with unbelievers, saying, "Do not be unequally yoked with unbelievers." ^B

Quest. XXVIII.

Some have interpreted *sisoēn* as hair made curly by deliberate effort. But I think the Law forbids something else. It is the custom among the Greeks not to shear the hair of their children's heads, but to let the hair grow long and afterwards dedicate it to the demons. They are also accustomed to shave their beards when they mourn, and to slash their cheeks in honor of the dead. Some also used to pierce parts of their bodies with needles and apply ink, in devotion to the demons. These things, therefore, the divine Law forbids. ^C

Quest. XXIX.

Certain ones, moved by demons, deceived many of the foolish by pretending to foretell the future. The Greeks called these people *enteromanteis* [belly-seers], as if the demon seemed to speak from within.

INTERROGATION XXX.

The priest had to be a model of temperance, and in order for the lineage to remain pure, providing no occasion for insult to those wishing to revile. Therefore, the divine Apostle also directs that the minister of God must have a good testimony even from those outside: "Lest he fall into reproach," he says, "and into the snare of the devil." For this reason, he orders the Israelite harlot to be put to death, but the priest’s daughter, guilty of a similar crime, to be consumed by fire. Moreover, because of the fault-finding nature of the Jews, he does not permit anyone who had any bodily blemish to perform ministry, excluding through involuntary conditions those that are voluntary. For blindness of the eyes signifies a lack of knowledge; the amputation of an ear, disobedience; the removal of the nose, the loss of discernment; the severing of a hand, idleness in action; and in the same way, the rest must also be understood. For this reason, He orders that victims be offered whole in all their limbs: by the things that are offered, He instructs those offering them to have pure activities of the soul. Among other things, He orders that the eunuch and the crushed be absent, for he who cares for divine ministry ^B ought to be fruitful in good things.

INTERROGATION XXXI.

He knew that there were some who were impious and suffered from the vice of gluttony; and that perhaps, seeing their firstborn was fat and handsome, they would keep that one and offer another; for this reason, He commanded that the first-born be offered.

INTERROGATION XXXII.

The land of Palestine, being warmer, bears early fruits. Therefore, He commands that no one should dare to parch, roast, or eat new ears of corn before they have offered a sheaf to God from them. And He commands that this be offered on the day of Pascha; then to count seven weeks from that day, and to celebrate the festival of Pentecost. ^C For thus He says: "And you shall count for yourselves from...

^A the morrow of the Sabbaths, from the day upon which you offer the sheaf of the separation, seven full weeks.” Now the festival of Pentecost was a reminder of the entry into the land of promise. For then they began both to sow and to reap; for in the desert they lived on manna falling from heaven. Having thus taught how one ought to celebrate the festival of both Pascha and Pentecost, He also teaches what must be done in the seventh month. And on the first day, He commands the festival of trumpets to be celebrated; these recalled the trumpets which occurred on Mount Sinai, when the God of all gave the law. “For the voice,” He says, “of the trumpet sounded loudly.” ^B And on the tenth day of the seventh month, He commands them to fast. For this day He calls the day of atonement. “For you shall afflict,” He says, “your souls, from the ninth of the month from evening, until the tenth of the month in the evening; you shall rest your Sabbaths. And every soul that shall not be afflicted on that day, that soul shall be destroyed from its people.” Yet now on that day the Jews do not show sadness, but laugh and play and dance, and use wanton words and deeds, directly fighting against the law. And on the fifteenth day, He legislates to celebrate the festival of Tabernacles, not only up to the seventh, as in the other festivals, but He commands ^C that an eighth be added to the seven. “For the day,” He says, “the eighth, shall be a called-holy day for you, and you shall offer burnt offerings to the Lord; it is an *exodium* (a finishing); you shall not do any servile work.” Now the *exodium* signifies the end of the festivals; and the festival of Tabernacles recalled the way of life in the desert. For this is what the Lawgiver also said: “Because I made the sons of Israel dwell in booths when I brought them out from the land of Egypt.” For this reason, He commanded to decorate the houses with branches of trees; and among the other branches, He included the chaste-tree (agnus castus), as a sign of temperance ^D and a quencher of pleasure. For they say that both when eaten and when used as bedding, it quenches the flame of pleasures. But He did not command them to use the branches of the chaste-tree in the manner of a physician, but by its name to instill the memory of temperance.

^A INTERR. XXXIII. *How is that to be understood: "Whoever curses God will be guilty of sin; but whoever invokes the name of the Lord, let him die the death"?*

A certain man was caught having blasphemed the God of all, but the law concerning blasphemy had not yet been written; for this reason, the Lawgiver ordered him to be kept in custody. On the following day, Moses asked the Lord God what that wicked man ought to suffer. The Lord commanded that he be stoned to death, and that those who had heard the blasphemy should cast the first stones. At the same time, He enacted the law regarding blasphemy. He called even the one falsely named "God" by the name of God; and He says that the one who reviles him sins, yet He did not judge him worthy of punishment. Indeed, the pious man does not sin when he blasphemes the god of false name, but rather the one who believes in him yet reviles him: for he blasphemes the one he worships. Therefore, He called such a sin "blasphemy," not on account of the dignity of the one to whom the blasphemy is offered, ^B but on account of the opinion of the one who blasphemes, because he does not blaspheme him as a falsely named god, but as the true God. He commanded, however, that the one who blasphemes the true God be destroyed with stones. And very reasonably He joined the law regarding homicide to these laws about blasphemy; for the blasphemer, since he cannot kill the Creator, strikes at Him with his tongue.

INTERR. XXXIV. *Why did He command that an eye be plucked out for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, and whatever is similar?*

He did not establish these laws so that they might suffer such things, but so that they might not commit them. For the fear of suffering restrained the desire for acting.

^C INTERR. XXXV. *For what reason does He forbid the land to be sown in the seventh year?*

He punishes their insatiable spirit with the law. For because they were continually sowing in order to have more, while the land, resting not at all, brought forth meager fruits, He ordained that the land should remain unseeded in the seventh year. And those things which grew of their own accord He forbade them to gather or harvest, teaching them the duties of humanity. For He commanded that the widows, the orphans, and the strangers should, together with the owners themselves, be partakers of those fruits. Besides these things, another matter is also transacted; for in this year debts were canceled, and the Hebrew servants were gifted with liberty. ^D Therefore He also ordained the jubilee

^B; for the name signifies remission and liberty. They call the fiftieth year the jubilee: "For you shall count," He says, "seven weeks of years, and you shall proclaim with the sound of a trumpet in all your land on the tenth day of the month, the day of atonement; on this day, He says, I will be merciful to you, and I shall forgive you your sins. On this day proclaim the year of remission." Then He commands that in this year, he who sold a field shall take it back, as well as the houses existing in the fields; He likewise ordered the records of debts to be rescinded, and the Hebrew servants to be set free. But since it was likely that some would be troublesome to their debtors when this year of remission was approaching, He forbade this also from being done by them. And that they might not doubt concerning necessary food—seeing that they would not be farming the land in the years of remission—He encouraged them with magnificent promises. For He promised that in the sixth year He would provide them not only with a double ^C yield, but even a triple one, sufficient to nourish them during the sixth and seventh years; nay, even lasting until the eighth year. "For you shall sow," He says, "in the eighth year, and you shall eat of the old produce until the ninth year, until its produce comes; you shall eat the old of the old." Then, by mentioning His mastery, He strengthens the law: "For the land is Mine," He says, "because you are sojourners and guests before Me." I, He says, gifted this to you; therefore, as Lord, I legislate.

QUESTIO XLVI. What is this: "Ten women shall bake their bread in one oven"?

As if they were gaping after the land, He both legislates and threatens. For to those who lived according to the law, He promises the fruitfulness of the land; but conversely, to those who transgress, He threatens the barrenness of the land, the incursion of enemies, and extreme poverty. This is what He signifies here, that such poverty shall overtake you that ten women shall bake bread in one oven due to the scarcity of necessities; for this is what He also added: "And you shall eat, and shall not be satisfied."

^A QUES. XXXVII. What is the meaning of: "Then shall the land enjoy her Sabbaths, and shall accept her Sabbaths, all the days of her desolation"? The interpretation of what follows is this. It says: "And you shall be in the land of your enemies." For they spent seventy years serving in Babylon. Now, from the kingdom of Saul until the captivity, four hundred and ninety years are counted, the seventh part of which makes seventy. This, then, is what it means: the land shall remain uncultivated and unsown for seventy years, while you inhabit a foreign land; because, along with the other laws, you also transgressed the commandment of the Sabbath. For He added: "And the land shall keep the Sabbaths, which it did not keep when you dwelt upon it." ^B He also added another threat: "And upon them that are left of you I will bring terror into their hearts in the land of their enemies; and the sound of a falling leaf shall chase them, and they shall flee as those who flee from war," and what follows. And this prophecy also received its fulfillment. For during the siege by the Chaldeans, many having been killed in the skirmishes, and many having perished by famine, when the captives were transported to Babylon, those who had escaped the hands of the enemies fled into Egypt, fearing the invasion of the Chaldeans. And this the prophecy of the most divine Jeremiah clearly teaches us. Yet, after the threats, He promised sweet things, and among other things, the return from captivity—not indeed because of their merits, but because of the piety of their ancestors. For He says: "And I will remember the covenant of Jacob, and the covenant of Isaac, and the covenant ^C of Abraham, and I will remember the former covenant, when I brought them out of the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage, in the sight of all the nations, that I might be their God; I am the Lord." By these words, He teaches the causes of His philanthropy. For, He says, on account of the promises made to their fathers, I tolerate their iniquity; and because all nations have known, through the incredible miracles, that I care for them exceedingly, and they are called My people. ^D However, He mentioned Jacob first, since he was the only progenitor of all of these. For Isaac was also [the progenitor] of the Idumeans, and Abraham also of the Ishmaelites and of those who are descended from Keturah. Beginning, therefore, from the root...

Abraham, and of the Israelites, and of those from Keturah; beginning therefore from the bottom, he ascended in order to Abraham, with whom from the beginning he had made his covenants.

QUESTION XXXVIII.

ON NUMBERS.

QUESTION I.

ANSWER.

because he said to Abraham: "Multiplying I will multiply thy seed as the stars of heaven, and as the sand which is by the sea shore." ^A He demonstrated the truth of his promise: for from the seventy-five who went down into Egypt, six hundred and three thousand five hundred and fifty men were numbered within a few years, capable of warfare, apart from those who were of immature or older age, as well as the women and the Levitical tribe; for this was not numbered with the others. Teaching this power of his, God says also through the prophet Isaiah: "Look unto Abraham your father, and unto Sarah that bare you: for I called him, and I blessed him, and increased him."

QUESTION II. Why was the number of the Levites smaller?

As those who were set in authority; for it is fitting that those who preside over subjects should be fewer. Besides, they were exempt from the burden of military service, and devoted themselves solely to divine worship.

QUESTION III. How then did the tribe of Judah, being royal, surpass all in number?

From the royal tribe one man reigned, but all from the Levitical tribe served, some performing sacrifices, others ministering to them. ^B It was fitting for the royal tribe to excel in number, both because of the blessing of Christ the Lord, who was to take flesh from that tribe, and so that those who were created kings might be fortified by a sufficient guard of their own tribesmen. He also appointed the priests near the royal tribe in this place as well: for placing the tribe of Judah toward the east, he joined the priests with the ark to them. To the tribe of Dan he assigned the northern climate. "For from the face of the north," he says, "evils shall be kindled against all that inhabit the earth." We have said in the blessings of Jacob, that from the tribe of Dan ^C a certain pernicious man will arise, who will call himself Christ, but will perform things contrary to his name, and will claim for himself things that in no way belong to him. And he assigned the east to Judah for a very just reason: because concerning Christ the Lord the divine prophets cry out: "Behold the man, the Branch is his name." And: "Unto you that fear my name shall the Sun of righteousness arise, and healing in his wings." And: "Sitten-

Sitting ^A in darkness and the shadow of death, light has risen upon them."

QUESTION IV. What were the duties of the priests, and what those of the Levites?

God himself, who is Lord of all, teaches this. For he says: "The Lord said to Moses: Take the tribe of Levi, and station them before Aaron the priest, and they shall minister to him, and they shall keep his guard and the guard of the children of Israel before the tabernacle of testimony, to perform the works of the tabernacle. And they shall guard all the vessels of the tabernacle of testimony, and the guards of the children of Israel, and all the works of the tabernacle. And you shall give the Levites to Aaron your brother, and to his sons who are priests. They are a given gift from the children of Israel. And you shall appoint Aaron and his sons over the tabernacle of testimony; and they shall guard their priesthood, and all things concerning the altar, and what is within the veil. And the stranger who touches these shall die." From this passage, then, we have learned that ^B while the priests offered the sacrifices, the Levites were established as ministers to the priests and guards of the tabernacle. In what follows, he teaches which duties were required of the family of Caath, which of Gerson, and which of Merari.

QUESTION V. For what reason did God command the firstborn of the people to be numbered?

Because he consecrated the entire tribe of Levi to divine ministries and freed them from the burden of military service, and since it was likely that some of the others would be annoyed that these had been preferred, the Lord God persuades those who were feeling indignant that he had ordained nothing unjust. For he says: "When, for your sake, the firstborn of the Egyptians were slain, yours were saved. In their stead, ^C therefore, I have reserved the Levitical tribe for the performance of my ministries; and in place of the firstborn of your cattle, the firstborn of the Levites." But because the firstborn of the other tribes were found to be more numerous than the Levites, he commanded that each individual who remained after the number was equalized should give five shekels to the priests, setting the shekel at twenty obols, and naming this number holy, as though it were ^D set apart for divine things and not common to all.

Elsewhere, however, he calls the twenty obols a didrachm; this didrachm was also demanded of the Lord as a firstborn. ^A

INTERR. VI. Why did He command that some of the sacred vessels be covered with a hyacinthine wrapping, and others with a purple one?

The more precious ones were covered with hyacinthine alone. That color denotes the heaven: for this reason, He commanded the parts within the veil to be covered with hyacinthine coverings, and the exterior parts with purple and similar ones, because heaven holds no punishments, whereas the earth, on account of transgressions of the laws, receives punishments as well. Purple indicates royalty; the kingdom of God is divine, without beginning and without end. Therefore, the exterior surface of the tabernacle was covered with hyacinthine and purple coverings. When He took thought for the family of Caath, He commanded that the priests should first enter the inner sanctuary and cover the ark and the rest of the furnishings with the aforementioned coverings, and only then should they be carried by the family of Caath: so that by seeing things which it is forbidden to touch or look upon, they might not, ^B from an unexpected sight, suffer death.

INTERR. VII. Whom does he call "unclean" by reason of the soul?

Him who has touched a dead body, or has approached close to the bones of a deceased person.

INTERR. VIII. Why did He command that these, as well as the lepers and those having a nocturnal emission, should live outside the camp?

He teaches us about greater things through lesser ones. For if he who touches a dead body is unclean, much more so is he who has caused a dead body through murder. And if the leper is unclean, much more so is he who practices various kinds of wickedness. In the same way, adultery is condemned through the one with a seminal emission. For if that which one suffers involuntarily is abominable, much more so is that which one commits of one's own will.

INTERR. IX. What is the meaning of: "If a man or woman shall commit any of the sins of mankind?"

He calls lighter sins "human"; because

since human nature is subject to change, it is impossible for it to be immune from all sins. "For no one," he says, "is pure from filth, even if his life should be of only one day." ^A Therefore, the divine David also cries out: "And enter not into judgment with thy servant, for no man living shall be justified in thy sight." For only the Lord Christ, both as man and as God, possesses that which is without blemish. And the prophet Isaiah, foreseeing this, cried out: "He committed no sin, nor was deceit found in his mouth." For this reason, he also took upon himself the sins of others, not having any of his own. For he says: "He bears our sins and suffers pains for our sake." And that great John says: "Behold the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world." For this reason, he is also free among the dead, as one who suffered death unjustly.

The divine law, therefore, teaches how those who have committed moderate transgressions are to be healed. For it commands him who has injured another in certain contracts, first to confess the sin, then to restore to the injured party what was taken, ^B adding a fifth part to the principal sum. But if it should happen that the injured person has departed this life before the one who committed the injury has been led to repentance, it orders that these things be paid to the kinsman. He calls "kinsman" one who is related by blood. Now the order of kinship is this: first a son, then a daughter, then a father's brother, then a grandfather's. But if none of these exist, the nearest relative. But if a relative cannot be found, it commanded that the aforementioned things be brought to God. For it said this: "But if a man have no kinsman to whom he may restore the trespass, the trespass that is restored to the Lord shall be the priest's, ^C besides the ram of the atonement, through which he shall make atonement for him." It also commanded the priests to eat the first-fruits that were offered. For the Levites were the first-fruits of the people, and the priests were the first-fruits of the Levites. Therefore, as first-fruits, they received the first-fruits.

INTERR. X. Why was barley flour brought by her who was suspected of adultery?

The Lord himself explained it. "For it is," he said, "a sacrifice of jealousy, a sacrifice of remembrance, a sacrifice bringing sin to mind." Whence he commanded that it should not have either oil or frankincense; for it was deprived of...

both the good odor and the light of justice. ^A This, however, the Lord God ordained, knowing their murderous intent. For so that they would not, out of suspicion alone, put their wives to death, he commanded that the one under suspicion be brought to him, seeing that he clearly knows all things, even those things done in secret. "For," he says, "the priest shall bring her forward, and shall set the woman before the Lord; and the priest shall take clean living water before the Lord in an earthen vessel, and some of the earth that is on the floor of the tabernacle of testimony; and the priest, having taken it, shall cast it into the water, and the priest shall set the woman before the Lord, and shall uncover the woman's head, and shall place upon her hands the sacrifice of remembrance, the sacrifice of jealousy; and in the hand of the priest shall be the water of the ordeal, this that brings the curse." ^B He commanded that all these things be done to terrify the woman who was under suspicion, so that if she had indeed sinned, she would confess, and through repentance would obtain forgiveness. Therefore he orders her to be set before God with uncovered head, teaching that all things are naked and laid bare before his eyes, and that nothing of what we do escapes him. And that he ordered these things to be celebrated to strike terror into her, the following words indicate: "And the priest shall adjure her, and shall say to the woman: 'If no one has lain with you, and if you have not turned aside to be defiled under your husband, be innocent of this water of the ordeal, this that brings the curse; but if you have turned aside while under a husband, or you have been defiled, or another has lain with you besides your husband, may the Lord deliver you into a curse and an adjuration in the midst of your people, in the Lord's causing your thigh to fall away and your belly to swell.'" ^C He also commanded the woman to agree to the curse and to say: "So be it, so be it." And he ordered the curse to be written and blotted out into the water, and the woman to drink the water; but before all, he ordered the sacrifice to be offered, that is, the barley flour. Then he shows that if the woman were innocent, she would be kept unharmed; but if she were guilty and hiding it, she would learn by experience the power of the curse, with the belly bursting and the thigh falling away. For by the things through which one sins, through these one is also punished. The "adjuration" ^D is to be understood in this way: whenever someone suffers grievous and unbearable things, some are accustomed when swearing to say: "May I not suffer what such-and-such a person has suffered."

Quest. XI. What is this: "Whoever shall greatly vow a vow to separate oneself with a vow of holiness to the Lord?"

^A And he also indicates what sacrifices it is proper for him to offer, who has fulfilled the promise of purification: a lamb for a holocaust, and a ewe lamb for sin. For the victims offered for sin are of the female sex, since sin is ventured when the rational part is rendered lax and soft. Moreover, he commanded him to offer an unblemished ram for salvation, and a basket of unleavened bread; then, while the sacrifice was being performed, to place the hair upon the eucharistic sacrifice. Now the boiled shoulder, which was placed upon the hands of the one who made the vow and was taken by the priest, denotes that the promised act has been accomplished; for the boiled shoulder is indicative of a completed act.

He did not legislate these things in vain, but to teach that one must exercise no small diligence, that vows should not be made rashly, and that where they have vowed, the promised things must be carried out. From these things he also teaches us that we should preserve holiness undefiled. For he who has been stained by any blemish is in need of purification from above, and of the removal of defilements through repentance. This is what the blessed Paul also said in writing to the Galatians: "My little children, of whom I am in travail again, until Christ be formed in you." ^B After this, he instructs the priests on how it is proper to bless, and that the divine name provides the blessing to those who approach. "For they shall put," he says, "my name upon the children of Israel, and I, the Lord, will bless them." He also brings forward the very words of the blessing: "The Lord bless thee, and keep thee. The Lord make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee. The Lord lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace."

From these things we are taught that those who wish to obtain a blessing must first petition for divine gifts; for this is what "The Lord bless thee" signifies; then that the things given should be preserved; for he added, "And keep thee." ^C The second blessing, however, predicts the advent of God and our Savior. "For the Lord," he says, "shall make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee." For the incarnation of God and our Savior is full of mercy; wherefore he also granted us reconciliation with God. ^D This is what the following blessing teaches: "The Lord lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace." Concerning this peace, the blessed Paul also said: "For he is our peace, who hath made both one, and breaking down the middle wall of the partition, the enmities in his flesh." When the prophet had discoursed concerning this blessing, and had set forth how he also anointed the tabernacle, and what things the princes of the tribes had offered, he declared by what reasoning he admitted the divine voice into his ears.

^A, which came forth from the propitiatory, which was placed upon the ark, and was covered by the wings of the Cherubim. Nor did he write this out of ambition, but to teach that the Lord God was accustomed to demonstrate His own glory to the high priests entering there once a year, as much as human nature is able to grasp.

INTERROGATION XII.

INTERROGATION XIII.

INTERROGATION XIV.

^A and for the native of the land." By these nations, He foreannounces the calling of the Gentiles.

QUESTION XV.

The all-wise Paul says: "If the trumpet give an uncertain sound, who shall prepare himself for the battle?" Therefore, there were differences of sound; one signified that they should rest, the other that they should depart. And when one trumpet sounded, it called the princes; but two [trumpets] called the people and the princes. And it was granted only to the priests to sound the trumpet, because the trumpet signified a divine calling. For this He added: "And if you go out to war in your land against the enemies who are fighting against you, you shall sound an alarm with the trumpets; and you shall be remembered before the Lord, and you shall be saved from your enemies. And in the days of your gladness, and in your feasts, and in your new moons, you shall sound the trumpets over your burnt offerings, and over the sacrifices of your peace offerings; and it shall be a remembrance for you before your God: I am the Lord your God." For since God, when He gave the law on Mount Sinai, smote their ears with the intense sound of trumpets, He brings their memory of that manifestation back to them through the sound of the trumpets. Whence the blessed ^B David, chanting, said: "Sound the trumpet in the new moon, in the glorious day of your feast." By these things, we too are taught, when we gather the entire congregation of the people, to sound with trumpets, and not to sound the alarm. For we discuss divine mysteries obscurely on account of the uninitiated; but when these are removed, we teach the initiated plainly.

QUESTION XVI.

He was of two names, just as Jacob, who is also Israel; as Simon Peter; as Thomas, who is called Didymus; as Thaddaeus, who is also Lebbaeus. The son of this man was Hobab. ^C

^A QUES. XVII. What was the murmur of the people? They were annoyed by the hardship of the journey.

QUES. XVIII. For what reason does He immediately inflict punishments upon those who sin? The Law had its beginning. It was necessary, therefore, that others should be disciplined by the punishment of the transgressors; for fear is appropriate for subjects. Yet, clemency was joined to the punishment. For those who repented enjoyed benevolence. Thus, when a portion of the fire sent by God had consumed part of the camp, ^B and all had run together in prayer, the lawgiver asked for forgiveness, and the most humane Lord granted it. That punishments were necessarily brought upon them, the subsequent events testify; for immediately after the cessation of the punishment, they renewed the memory of Egypt, and of the leeks, and of the garlic, and of the other things for which the desire of gluttony kindled an appetite. Very reasonably, therefore, the writer joined the divine generosity to their ingratitude, narrating the things concerning the manna, and that it supplied not only the need of bread, but also of meat. "They ground it," he says, "in a mill, and beat it in a mortar, and boiled it in a pot, and made cakes" (Num. xi, 8). While they were lamenting, the Master God is angered, and the prophet is distressed, and cries out saying: "Why have you afflicted your servant, ^C to lay the intensity of this people upon me? Did I conceive this people in my womb, or did I give birth to it, that you say to me: Take them into your bosom, as a nurse carries the suckling, into the land which you swore to their fathers?" (Num. xi, 11, 12). By these words he revealed their imperfection and childishness; for he compared them to a suckling, able to do nothing else, but only wishing to suck milk. And because he was very much distressed by the ^D steps—for even the following words have this meaning—he is taught by the Master God that he does not govern the people by human power, but by divine grace. For He said to him: "Gather for me seventy men from the elders of Israel, whom you yourself know to be the elders of the people, and their scribes; and you shall bring them to the tabernacle of testimony; and they shall stand there with you; and I will descend, and speak there with you; and I will take of the spirit which is upon you, and will place it upon them; and they will bear with you the intensity of this people, and you shall not carry them alone" (Num. xi, 16, 17). From these words, the lawgiver learned that he had received grace sufficient for the administration. Therefore, He said: "I will take of..."

the spirit that is upon thee, and will put it upon them." ^A For He did not say this because He was lacking in other power or grace, but to teach him that he had received power sufficient for the need. And that by giving it also to the seventy He did not diminish his grace, the facts themselves bear witness; for he continued to do the same things in governing the people and performing miracles as he had performed before. For just as someone who lights countless lamps from one, neither diminishes that one nor fails to share the light with the others, so God, the Giver of all things, in sharing the grace of this man with the seventy, did not diminish the grace granted to him. We see this happening even now. For many myriads of people being baptized by one priest, and receiving the divine gift, do not diminish the grace of the priest; and very many being ordained by high priests, and receiving the priestly dignity, do not in any way diminish the grace of the one ordaining. Indeed, the Master gave His assent to the decision of His servant; for He said to him, "Choose them whom thou thyself knowest." ^B

INTERR. XIX. Why, when God had promised that He would give meat, did the prophet doubt?

Because he was not only a prophet, but also a man. He was taught, however, by the Master God not to doubt when God promised something. For He said to him: "Shall not the hand of the Lord be sufficient? Now thou shalt know whether my word shall come to pass for thee, or not." Yet, while promising that He would give, He joined punishment to the generosity. For when He had said, "Ye shall eat meat for a month, until it come out at your nostrils," He added: "And it shall be for you for loathing," ^C or as Symmachus says, "for indigestion." For gluttony brought on the illness, and the divinely-inflicted blow brought death to many. Whence the divine David said: "While the food was yet in their mouth, the wrath of God came up upon them, and slew the fattest of them." With good reason, therefore, the all-wise Paul admonishes: "Make not provision for the flesh, to fulfill the lusts thereof."

INTERR. XX. Wherefore did the seventy, as soon as they were appointed, prophesy, but after that not again?

Because He had appointed them not for the sake of prophesying, but for governmental duties; and this also is counted among the gifts of the Spirit. Whence the blessed Paul, when...

^A enumerating the spiritual gifts, placed in order the apostles, the prophets, the teachers, and the gift of healings, helps, and governments. The seventy were deemed worthy of this gift. And in order that it might be manifest to the people that they had enjoyed the divine gift, they immediately foretold certain things.

QUESTION XXI. Why did Eldad and Modad prophesy, not being numbered among the seventy?

It is probable that they were equal in dignity to the seventy, and for that reason obtained that gift. These words, however, imply that often those who are considered reprobate among men are known as approved by Him who knows hidden things. ^B Thus, with respect to Cornelius, the divine generosity anticipated the ministry of men; for before he was baptized, He gave him the grace of the Spirit. Moreover, the candor of the lawgiver is displayed here as well. For when Joshua had said to Moses, "My lord Moses, forbid them," he, answering, said, "Do you not envy for my sake? And would that all the Lord’s people were prophets, whenever the Lord gives His Spirit upon them!" But the most praiseworthy Joshua was not led by the passion of envy, but, thinking the matter to be one of insubordination and tyranny, he used these words. For that he was free from this passion, his praise testifies. For thus it is said: "And Joshua the son of Nun, the chosen one, who attended Moses, answering, said, My lord Moses, forbid them."

QUESTION XXII. Who is to be understood by the Ethiopian woman whom Moses took?

Josephus said that when Moses was being raised in the royal palace, he was appointed commander for the war against the Ethiopians, and having gained the victory, he took the daughter of that king. But Apollinarius composed a fable far more fabulous than this; for he said that after Zipporah, Moses married another Ethiopian woman, ^C in order, he says, that he might be a type of the Lord Christ, who, after the Israelite woman, betrothed to Himself the Church from the Gentiles. But Zipporah also was of a foreign race. Therefore, to fabricate myths belongs not to the divine Spirit, but to the contrary one. For the lawgiver had such a concern for purity after his calling that, upon entering Egypt, he left Zipporah at home. But after his departure from there, his father-in-law arrived to him, bringing her with his children, and he added ^D that he brought her after her dismissal.

^A

QUEST. XXIII

Therefore, he called Zipporah an Ethiopian woman; for the Sabaean nation is Ethiopian. For the Evangelist says: "The queen of the Ethiopians 11 shall rise up, and shall condemn this generation." But the history of the Kingdoms called this woman the queen of Sheba. Now Sheba is the name given to the nation of the Homerites; the Midianites are neighbors to them. Since, therefore, Aaron had taken an Israelite woman, but Moses a foreigner, a certain enmity arose, and they brought this reproach against him. But this insolence of the brothers confirms the most perfect virtue of the lawgiver; for being evidently at a loss for other accusations, they brought against him a reproach concerning his wife. ^B And the verdict of the most just Judge bears witness to my words; for He said: "If there be a prophet among you, I will make myself known to him in a vision, and will speak in a dream. Not so my servant Moses, who is faithful in all my house; mouth to mouth will I speak to him, in appearance, and not by riddles; and he has seen the glory of the Lord 12. And why were you not afraid to speak against my servant Moses 13?" True, therefore 14, is that word which says: "Vengeance is mine; I will repay, says the Lord." For we are taught by these things, and by those, not to take revenge on those who inflict injury, but to await the divine judgment, which takes care of those who are affected by injury: just as at that time, while Moses was silent, He struck Miriam with leprosy.

QUEST. XXIII

In the first place, because her transgression was more grave. ^C For both nature and the law subject the female to the male. 17 Then, Aaron deserved a certain measure of indulgence, both as being more advanced in age and as having been deemed worthy of the high priesthood. Furthermore, since a leper was considered unclean according to the law, and Aaron was the root and pillar of the priests, lest that disgrace should pass to the whole race, He did not inflict the same punishment upon him, but by means of his sister He both terrified him and instructed him. For the plague brought him such pain, that he ^D begged for the one who had suffered the injury to intercede for her, so that by his prayers he might avert this disaster; which he did not neglect, but immediately offered his supplication. Then the most merciful Lord taught that He does not [deal with us] in a judicial manner, but in a fatherly one,

^A for He says, "If her father spitting had spat in her face, shall she not be ashamed? She shall be separated seven days outside the camp, and after that she shall come in." And honor is linked to this dishonor; for the people did not move until she was freed from the affliction.

INTERR. XXIV. For what reason did God command that spies be sent (25)?

That by learning beforehand the fruitfulness of the land, they might desire to obtain such rich fruits; and that those who hesitated and were faint-hearted might be punished without any excuse. ^B

INTERR. XXV. Why did He call Oseas Joshua, when He sent him to spy (25)?

Because he was a type of the true Jesus, who imitated the appearance of the spies while managing our salvation. For just as the spies adopted the habit and the language of those nations that they were spying upon, so too God the Word, putting on human nature ^C and using its language, managed our salvation.

INTERR. XXVI. What does he mean by the generation of Enak?

This man was most famous and celebrated, as is natural, on account of the size of his body; and his lineage and offspring were exactly like their ancestor. ^D

INTERR. XXVII. What is this: "The glory of the Lord shall fill all the earth"?

He foretells the rejection of the Jews and the salvation of the world; and he confirms the prophecy with an oath. "For as I live," He says, "and My name lives, the glory of the Lord shall fill all the earth." Then He pronounces the judgment against all who were numbered, except for Chaleb, the son of Jephonne, and Joshua, the son of Nave, who, besides reporting the truth, had encouraged the people toward piety. Yet it is fitting to compare this decision with that which is stated in the Gospels: "The kingdom shall be taken away from you, and shall be given to a nation producing its fruits." For those who fell in the desert due to their unbelief bore the figure of the unbelieving Jews; but those uncircumcised boys who believed bore the figure of the

^A uncircumcised ones who, in place of those others, through Jesus obtained the land promised to their ancestors.

INTERR. XXVIII. Cur tam multa per legem inculcat de iisdem sacrificiis? Why does he legislate at such length about the same sacrifices? To establish a firm memory of these laws through the frequency of their enactment.

INTERR. XXIX. Quid est illud: «Anima quæ egerit manu sua superbe?» What is the meaning of: "Any soul which acts with a high hand (superbe)"? Having legislated regarding what kind of sacrifice those who have sinned unintentionally must offer, he now legislates concerning those who have sinned voluntarily. Sins are varied: for some are unable to withstand the assault of the passions due to the weakness of the soul, and so, yielding, they are overcome; others fall into sins due to some other circumstance. There are, however, some who are also contemptuous regarding divine laws; these he says sin "with a high hand" (from pride), as those who voluntarily despise the laws. He says such a one shall be cut off, and he adds the reason: "Because he has despised the word of the Lord, and has rendered his commandments of no effect; that soul shall be utterly cut off, his sin is in him." For one who is overcome by the passions due to weakness, and then mourns and laments, merits at least some small forgiveness; but he who embraces wicked things and despises the divine commandments is devoid of any defense. ^{B C}

INTERR. XXX. Qua de causa lapidari jussit eum qui die Sabbati ligna collegerat? Why did he command that he who gathered wood on the Sabbath be stoned? Because he was the first to have dared to transgress the law, so that he might not become an archetype for breaking the law; for the punishment of this man struck fear into everyone.

INTERR. XXXI. Cur mandavit Deus, ut fimbriis ipsis vestimentorum villam hyacinthinam apponerent? Why did God command them to place a hyacinth-colored thread on the very fringes of their garments? The hyacinth thread mimics the color of the sky. Thus, he was reminding them of the Lawgiver, who indeed fills all things, but is considered to dwell in heaven. "For the heaven of heavens is the Lord's," he says. And: "He who dwells in the heavens shall laugh at them." The law teaches this no less: "For you shall see these fringes," he says, "and you shall remember the commandments of the Lord to do them; and you shall not turn ^D

QUEST. IN NUM. CAP. XV-XVI.

shall remember [Num. XV. 39] all the commandments of the Lord, and do them, and not turn aside after your own thoughts and your own eyes, with which you commit fornication after them.

INTERR. XXXII. That Core should have moved sedition against the legislator, perhaps not without some reason; for he was of the Levitical tribe: but Dathan, and Abiron, and Eliab, since they drew their origin from Ruben, what grounds had they for their sedition? Ruben was the firstborn; and they thought that the priesthood belonged to the firstborn, and they did not observe that their forefather himself had fallen from the right of the firstborn on account of his iniquitous deed.

INTERR. XXXIII. What is the meaning of: "Ne attendas ad sacrificium eorum" [Num. XVI. 15]? The struggle was concerning the priesthood, and since both parties were about to offer incense, they were using the Lord God as judge. Therefore, the prophet [Moses], being grieved on account of the authors of the sedition, adjures the Judge not to accept what was offered unlawfully by the seditious, and calls Him to testify to his own integrity. "Do not attend," he says, "to their sacrifice; I have not desired the thing of any one of them, neither have I afflicted any one of them." And the Judge confirmed this testimony by the deed itself: "Depart," He says, "from the midst of this congregation, and I will destroy them at once." ^B And once again the most celebrated Moses manifested his own meekness. For, casting himself at the feet of the Judge, he cried out: "O God of the spirits and of all flesh, if one man has sinned, shall the wrath of the Lord be upon the whole congregation?" [Num. XVI. 22] But the most humane Lord, having heard the supplication of His servant, commanded the others to separate themselves from the seditious; and when He had commanded the earth to open, He caused the tents together with the men to sink; and those who had traveled through the midst of the sea were swallowed up by the land. For it is easy for the Creator to make a dry path in the sea, and conversely for the earth to serve as punishment instead of the sea. ^C For the Egyptians, He brought about destruction through water; but Dathan and Abiron and the rest, He overwhelmed with the waves of the earth. Thus he delivered those alive to hell, but the company of Core he consumed with fire.

QUESTION XXXIV

To rebuke those who would dare to commit any offense against the priesthood, and to confirm those who had been appointed for the performance of sacred rites. For He added this: "To be a memorial to the children of Israel, that no stranger who is not of the seed of Aaron might approach to offer incense before the Lord." For this reason also, He commanded the rod that blossomed to be placed in the ark. Again, by law He established that the priests should perform the sacrifices, but the Levites should minister, neither approaching the altar nor touching the sacred vessels.

Afterward, He teaches which things it is fitting for the priests to take for themselves. For He commanded the priests to eat the first-fruits of wine, grain, oil, and bread offered to Him. Moreover, He ordained that they should also receive the votive offerings and the first-born, setting the price of redemption for the animals that were unclean. "For the redemption of it," He says, "from one month old, shall be a valuation of five shekels, according to the holy shekel, twenty obols." ^B But concerning the first-born of clean animals, He commanded the blood to be poured out at the base of the altar and the fat to be offered, but that the priests should take the flesh, just as they take the breast and the shoulder from the other sacrifices.

Furthermore, He called the communication a "covenant of salt," because, according to the divine Apostle, "They who serve at the altar partake with the altar." Some, however, say that because God commanded the sacrifices to be sprinkled with salt, He called things consecrated to the priests a "covenant of salt." ^C Then He teaches that He does not wish the priests and the Levites to receive an inheritance like the other tribes, but that the Levites should receive [their portion] from all the people: both the tithes of the fruits of the land, and of those born of the flocks and herds, and likewise of trade or any other business. Furthermore, He commanded the Levites to offer the tithe of the tithes to the priests; and while He commanded them to eat of these in any place, He ordered them to eat those things set apart from the sacrifices inside the temple.

He also calls the tithes a wage for the benefit of the people. ^D "For while you," He says, "are farming, or trading, or living at home, these attend to my service on behalf of you all." For He said this: "This is your reward for the ministries which you perform for me in the tabernacle of testimony."

^A Q. XXXV. How are the statements concerning the red heifer to be understood? The Law commanded that this be offered for the sin of the people; it prefigures the saving passion which took away the sin of the whole world. It orders a red heifer to be brought so that it might prefigure the earthly body; for the name "Adam" signifies the red earth from which his body was fashioned. The fact that the heifer was unblemished indicates that the Lord Christ was without sin. And the fact that the heifer was to be unyoked signifies the freedom of our Savior; for a yoke denotes slavery. But the Lord, when the didrachma was demanded of Him, said, "Are the sons then free?" And the slaughter of the heifer outside the camp indicates the passion of the Savior which He underwent outside the gate. ^B The divine Apostle teaches these things more clearly in the Epistle to the Hebrews. He commanded that the whole heifer, along with its skin and the rest, be burned, because all things pertaining to the Lord Christ were pure. The cedar wood was a figure of the Cross; for just as the former is incorruptible, so the wood of the Cross gives life. The scarlet was a type of the Lord's blood. Hyssopus was also present, because life-giving heat dissolves the coldness of death. However, he says that the one who burned the heifer was to be impure until evening, to denote those who crucified the Lord Christ. And he ordered that those who had approached a corpse, or touched their bones, or were polluted by anything of that kind, be sprinkled with these ashes mixed with water. ^C "And the man," he says, "who is not purified, that soul shall be cut off from the midst of the congregation, because the water of sprinkling has not been sprinkled upon him." So also the Lord said in the holy Gospels: "Unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven."

Q. XXXVI. Why does he say that both the one who sprinkles and the one who is sprinkled are impure until evening? Because according to the Law, the one who touched the bone of a dead person was impure. ^D Therefore, purification belongs to the truth (for the purification is through Christ), but to be impure belongs to the Law; for the Law prefigured grace. Moreover, these were impure until evening—that is, until the end of the Law. For the Lord's advent is like the dawn. "For to those who sat in darkness and the shadow of death, light has dawned," as the prophet Isaiah says. And elsewhere the same God has said: "To those who fear me shall arise..."

^A the Sun of righteousness, and healing is in his wings." And again: "Behold the man whose name is the Branch."

QUESTION XXXVII. Why was the Lord God angry with Moses and Aaron when they brought forth water from the rock?

While they were grieving over the death of their sister, the children of Israel pressed upon them, clamoring due to a lack of water. Because they were annoyed by their petulance, they used ambiguous words while bringing forth the water. For the legislator says thus: "Hear me, you rebels, shall I bring forth water for you from this rock?" For this reason the Lord God passed judgment against them, and said in this manner: "Because you did not believe in me, to sanctify me before the children of Israel, therefore you shall not bring this assembly into the land which I have given them." The divine David also says, singing of this: ^B "And Moses was vexed on their account, because they provoked his spirit, and he spoke unadvisedly with his lips." For when he was angry with them, he brought forth a word in an ambiguous way; and the ambiguity was not of his mind, but of his tongue. For this is what it seems to say: "And he spoke unadvisedly with his lips." It must be known, however, that God brought forth this sentence while providing for something else, which we shall show in its proper place.

QUESTION XXXVIII. For what reason did God ordain that the bites of serpents should be ^C healed by a bronze serpent?

This also prefigures the saving Passion. For through the serpent did sin come into being, from whence it also received a curse from the God of all. Therefore, the serpent is a type both of sin and of the curse. Since, therefore, the Lord Christ appeared in the likeness of sinful flesh, as the divine Apostle says—for He truly took a body, but did not commit sin, nor was guile found in His mouth—the saving Passion is prefigured by the bronze serpent. For just as the bronze serpent was an image of the serpents, yet did not carry their venom; so the only-begotten Son had a human body, but was devoid of the stain of sins. And just as those bitten by the serpents, by looking upon the serpent, ^D were healed; so those wounded...

^A by sin, believing without hesitation in the passion of our Savior, are declared mightier than death and enjoy eternal life.

QUESTION XXXIX. If Balaam was a seer, why did he inquire of the Lord?

He was not inquiring of the true God; yet He answered him—not he who had been invoked, but He whom [Balaam] did not know. "For God," he says, "came to Balaam and said to him: 'What do these men with you?'" It is not because He was ignorant of the reason for their arrival, but so that, having found a starting point in the seer's own words, He might command what needed to be done.

QUESTION XL. For what reason, after having ordered him not to go, did He command him again to go?

Because Balaam, captivated by desire for the promised money, asked again if he should go with those who had been sent to him, thinking that the Lord God had changed His mind. He allowed him to go, as if saying: "Go, since you desire to do this; but know, however, that you will speak only what I wish."

QUESTION XLI. Why, after having ordered him to go, does He hinder the journey through an angel?

He terrifies him both with the voice of the ass, which occurred contrary to nature, ^B and with the vision of the angel, so that he might learn how great a care God has for His people. Some say that this angel was Michael, who protects the people.

QUESTION XLII. And what power did the seer's curse have against the will of God?

It had no power at all, for the opinion held about him was false. But because the people, by sinning continually, were enduring divinely-inflicted plagues, the Lord God arranged things regarding Balaam with a view to their infirmity. ^C "For in order that, being chastised by God, they might not think that their calamities were coming about because of the seer's curses, He did not permit the seer to use the curses, thereby cutting off all opportunity for the foolish." For clearly to those who have been instructed in divine things, even if the seer's curses had some power, it would still have been easy for Him who made all things to render them vain. ^D

^A For the Lord, he says, dissipates the counsels of nations, and reproves the thoughts of the peoples, and reproves the counsels of princes; but the counsel of the Lord remains for ever [Ps. xxxii, 10]. Balaam, nevertheless, even though he had learned of God's providence, strives to persuade Him otherwise with sacrifices, supposing Him to be one of those false gods 34 whom those who worship them call mutable. But the phrase, "He went straight" [Num. xxiii, 3], signifies that he truly wished to learn what ought to be done; hence his impure mouth received the power of the Holy Spirit, and he speaks what he does not wish, and cries out: "How shall I curse him whom God has not cursed, and how shall I denounce him whom God does not denounce?" [Num. xxiii, 8]. And he foretells things to come: "Behold, the people shall dwell alone, and shall not be numbered among the nations. Who has accurately reckoned the seed of Jacob, and who shall number the tribes of Israel?" [Num. xxiii, 9-10]. Then he desires to share in their fellowship: "Let my soul die with the souls of the righteous, and let my seed be as the seed of these" [Num. xxiii, 10]. ^B But because Balac was indignant, and suspected that he had bestowed a blessing because he had seen the multitude of the Hebrews, he led him to another place from whence it was possible to see a portion of the people; and deservedly, the all-holy Spirit again says through him: "God is not as man, so as to be deceived [Num. xxiii, 19], nor as a son of man, so as to endure threats. For when He has spoken, shall He not do it? Shall He speak, and not abide?" [Num. xxiii, 19]. "The divine nature," He says, "O Balac, is not subject to change or alteration after the manner of men. I have been brought to bless: I will bless, and I shall not turn back."

QUESTION XLIX.

^A Israel, neither divination nor the observation of augurs is able to foretell what God is about to do. For the Lord God, through his own prophets, both foretells to him the things that are to come, and suggests what must be done.

Interrogation XLIV.

Having learned by experience that he gained nothing by using a vain art—for the One who turned his tongue wherever He wished was infinitely more powerful—he no longer used the customary signs, but dedicated his tongue ^B to the service of God. However, it must be noted that it seemed to some that he had foretold nothing about our Savior; such people needed to understand that the advent of our God and Savior was revealed even to the most impious Nabuchodonosor. For he saw a stone hewn without hands, which struck the image, and crushed the gold, the silver, the bronze, the iron, and the clay, and became a great mountain, and covered the whole earth [Dan. ii, 34, 35]. He, therefore, who foretold those things through him, has also through this one foretold the salvation of the world, so that such prophecies might be preserved even among the nations. The outcome of events bears witness ^C to this prophecy. For He who blossomed from Judah according to the flesh not only plundered the leaders of Moab, but all the sons of Seth; and all men are sons of Seth. For Noah was a descendant of Seth, and from Noah comes the whole nature of men. He also foretold the victory of the Macedonians against the Persians: "For there shall come out," he says, "from the hand of Chetim, and they shall afflict Assur, and they shall afflict the Hebrews" [Num. xxiv, 24]. Now Alexander destroyed the kingdom of the Persians; and Antiochus, warring against the Jews, captured their metropolis and rendered the divine temple desolate. These ^D prophecies, however, did not proceed from false divination, but from the operation of the most holy Spirit. For He who commanded the ass to speak with a human voice contrary to nature, He it is who also foretold the future through the tongue of the seer. "For the Spirit of God," he says, "came upon him" [Num. xxiv, 2]. The same thing happened even in the case of the lawless Saul; whence, on account of the strangeness, the proverb also arose: "Is Saul also among the prophets?" Since, therefore, the false prophet had received such an experience from God, he devised other snares against God. For well

^A knowing that they were of invincible fortitude when protected by God, he drove them to impiety through intemperance, so that, stripped of divine aid because of their impiety, they might be captured more easily. He persuaded the Midianites, therefore, to arm not men but women against them, using the grace of their bodies and the allurements of their words in place of weapons, so that, taken by beauty and seduced by the bait of their words, they might serve their idols.

The blessed Moses taught us this, rebuking those who had taken the women alive after the victory over the Midianites. For he says thus: "Why have you saved all the women alive? For these were the ones who, according to the word of Balaam, caused the children of Israel to depart from God and to despise the word of the Lord because of Phogor, and a plague occurred in the congregation of the Lord." Phogor is the name of the idol. The divine David also remembered this impiety: "And they were initiated to Beelphegor, and ate the sacrifices of the dead." For this reason, God commanded that the Midianites be pursued with hostile intent: "For they are enemies to you," he says, "through craft because of Phogor." But because the people had sinned, the princes were hanged, as Symmachus said, because they had not cast out the evil from among them.

As for the expression, "His kingdom shall be exalted as Gog," Symmachus interpreted it thus: "And his king shall be exalted above Og." These words intimate that, when Og should wage war against them, they would be victorious because of the king according to the flesh who was to descend from them.

QUESTION XLV.

Since He had already passed judgment against those previously numbered, but was about to bring their children into the promised land—those regarding whom they themselves had said that they would be captives—He commanded these also to be numbered, that He might make plain the power of His own blessing, because, although the fathers had been taken away, the same number remained.

QUESTION XLVI.

That He might remove all strife and controversy, as if God were distributing the land by lot. For He did not command the matter to be committed to fortune. The divine apostles did this very same thing before the holy Spirit had descended. For by casting lots, they ^D

^A prayed to Him who clearly knows all things, that He might show who was the more worthy. Similarly, the divine Paul also speaks concerning us in this manner: "In whom also we have obtained an inheritance, being predestinated according to the purpose of Him who worketh all things after the counsel of His own will."

EPQT. MZ'

INTERR. XLVII.

Why did the Lord God, having testified concerning Joshua that he had the Spirit of God in him, command Moses ^B to lay his hands upon him? This also happened in the case of Cornelius. For after receiving the grace of the Spirit, then they were deemed worthy of baptism. Indeed, even the Lord Christ, having received all the gifts of the Spirit according to His humanity before the pains of birth, approached the baptism of John and commanded the servant’s hand to be laid upon His head; and He showed the all-holy Spirit appearing in the form of a dove descending upon Him. And the apostles, having received the holy Spirit through the Lord’s breathing, afterward received the grace that came down from heaven. This also occurred in the case of Joshua the son of Nun. For he indeed had the grace of the Spirit; yet so that the people might also believe that he had received the appointment to the leadership from God 4, the hands of the lawgiver were laid upon him, and this Moses did, having been so commanded by God: "For thou shalt lay," He says, "thy hands upon him; and thou shalt place [him] before Eleazar the priest, and thou shalt command him before all the congregation; and thou shalt give of thy glory 82 upon him, that the children of Israel may hearken unto him; and he shall stand before Eleazar the priest 5." Instead of, "He shall possess equal honor to him," and through the breastplate of judgment, which was laid upon his breast, he shall learn what must be done. From this we learn how those who receive ordination from the high priests partake of spiritual grace. For here, too, the Lord God said, "Thou shalt give of thy glory upon him." ^C It is worth admiring the prophet, that although he had sons, and a brother, and a nephew 58, he did not set any of them up as leader, but he consulted God and ordained the one who was decreed by Him. After these things, having recalled the festivals and the sacrifices, he legislates concerning those who have vowed to offer something to the Lord God. And first, he strictly ordered that every one who makes a promise must confirm the promise by deed; but as for the ^D daughter, who making a promise while under the power of her father, the father ought to confirm the promise; but if he disagrees with the one who has promised, the one who has promised is not held guilty. If, however, he has consented to her promising...

or has remained silent, the things promised are to be fulfilled. This the lawgiver has also laid down regarding a woman joined to a husband, ^A and he commanded that the consent of the husband confirms the promise.

INTERR. XLVIII. *For what reason did the lawgiver command the women of the Midianites who were joined to men to be killed?* Because they had learned the dogmas of impiety and were able to corrupt those who had captured them in war.

INTERR. XLIX. *Why has the lawgiver recorded the stations?* ^B So that those who would come later might know the Providence of God; for having led them through pathless and arid regions, He abundantly provided them with the supply of necessary things.

INTERR. L. *Why does he prescribe the return of the one who killed unintentionally after the death of the high priest?* Because the death of the High Priest according to the order of Melchizedek became the solution to human sin. He brought back into Paradise those who had been cast out from there. Moreover, during that period of time, the flight of the slayer softened the anger of the kinsmen and curbed their murderous impulse. And that the vengeance ceased for the exiles after the death of the priest was enough to persuade the kinsmen to quench their wrath thereafter, as the high priest under whom the sin was committed had died; and because the lawgiver had set a limit for both the sin and the vengeance.

INTERR. LI. *For what reason did He command the tribes to be kept separate?* So that the seed of Judah might be preserved uncorrupted, through whom God promised the blessing to the nations. However, the royal and priestly tribes did commune with one another, because Christ the Lord, according to His humanity, was to be both King and High Priest.

ON DEUTERONOMY.

^A QUESTION I. Why is the fifth book of the Lawgiver called Deuteronomy?

ANSWER. After the Lord God brought the people out of Egypt, He gave the law on Mount Sinai, according to which they were to conduct their lives. Then, in the second year, He commanded them to take possession of the land which He had promised to give to their forefathers. But as they resisted and were unwilling to do this, He swore that He would give that land to none of those who had been numbered by the Lawgiver, but that He would destroy them all in the desert. When forty years, therefore, had passed and those others had perished according to the divine decree, He ordered their children to be numbered—those who were at the same age as those who had been counted at the former time. As God was about to lead these into the land He had promised, He instructed them through the prophet in the law which He had given to their fathers who had transgressed. ^B Deuteronomy, therefore, contains a summary recapitulation of the things that were legislated and performed in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers; and it also specifies the time and the place where and when He presented this instruction to this younger generation. "For beyond the Jordan," it says, "in the wilderness, toward the west, in the fortieth year, in the eleventh month, on the first day of the month, after he had struck Sihon the king of the Amorites and Og the king of Bashan" (Deut. 1, 1-4). And that He did not give a second law, but brought back to memory the former legislation, the preface to the book itself teaches. "For he began," it says, "Moses, to explain this law, saying, The Lord our God spoke to us in Horeb" (ibid. 5, 6). Then, having related how He also commanded them to enter and possess the land by hereditary right, he added what he had said at that time: "I alone cannot govern so many myriads; ^C and for that reason I established," he says, "those who should be prefects"

and centurions, so that he might have them as partners in the government. ^A He refreshes their memory of these words because he had appointed Joshua the son of Nun as his successor in leading the people, teaching that, while still living, he had entrusted the leadership to others, and that it is necessary to obey him also with readiness and carry out his commands. He also brings to their minds how God had ordered them to take possession of the land which He had promised; how it had seemed right to them that scouts should be sent first; that when they had returned and reported on that land, they had disbelieved the God who had saved them and had neglected to obtain the land; so that they provoked the Lord God to pass judgment against all those myriads—namely, that no one among them would enter that land, except for Caleb the son of Jephunneh. "He," he says, "shall see it, and to him will I give the land upon which he has set foot, and to his sons, because he has clung to the Lord." Mention is made of him alone; but Joshua was appointed as prince, leader, and prophet, as is evident from what follows. For he says: "And the Lord God was angry with me on your account," meaning, you being in a tumult, I did not obey the divine command as was just, and for that reason I have been forbidden to lead you into that land. He therefore recalls the memory of those things which were spoken to him by God: "Joshua the son of Nun, who stands before you, he shall enter there; encourage him, for he shall allot the land to Israel." ^B He says these things, teaching them that the leader was appointed by God, so that they might not again stir up sedition concerning the leadership. He explains to them, moreover, how afterwards, led by repentance, they had desired to wage war against the Canaanites; how God had forbidden them; and how, moved by audacity and ascending against the divine command, they had returned defeated. He also recounts how much time they had spent in the wilderness, wandering around that inaccessible and waterless land; ^C what kind of friendly response they had failed to receive when they sent messages to the Idumeans and Moabites; and in what manner they had utterly destroyed Sihon and Og, the kings of the Amorites, with their whole army and the inhabitants of their cities and villages. He also reports the magnitude of Og’s own body. "For his iron bed," he says, "had a length of nine cubits and a breadth of four cubits." ^D Then he urges and counsels them to keep the commandments of the Lord diligently: "Hear therefore, O Israel," he says, "the statutes and the judgments which I teach you today to do, that you may live and, having entered, possess the land which the Lord God of your fathers is giving [you].

^A Then, he necessarily brings up the memory of Beel-phegor and of those who perished in the desert on account of that impiety. Next, by comparison, he points out the divine benefits. "For what nation is there," he says, "which has a God so near to it, as the Lord our God is to us in all things for which we have called upon Him?" He commands them not only to keep the laws of God, but also to rear their children and their descendants in the practice of piety, and to instruct them in the divine commandments from childhood. Then he again reminded them how the God of all appeared to them, delivering words through the fire, ^B yet displaying no form. For he said: "You heard the sound of words from the midst of the fire, but you saw no likeness; only a sound." He says these things while instructing them not to fashion any image, nor ever to attempt to construct a divine icon, since they have not seen the form of the archetype. Whence he adds again: "Do no injustice, and do not make for yourselves a carved likeness, any icon, a likeness of male or female; a likeness of any beast which is on the earth; a likeness of any winged bird which flies under the sky; a likeness of any reptile which creeps on the earth; a likeness of any fish, as many as are in the waters under the earth." ^C All these things, he says, did God create for your use; it is therefore the greatest madness to deify the icons of your subjects. He added also these words: "Lest, having looked up to heaven and seen the sun, and the moon, and all the host of heaven, you be led astray and worship them, and serve them, which the Lord your God has allotted to all the nations under heaven." For these things, he says, the Creator fashioned for the use of men; do not, therefore, suppose them to be gods, which God, the Lord of all, has set apart to serve the needs of men. For so also the others interpreted: "Which the Lord your God has distributed among the peoples under the whole heaven." Then he scares them with threats, that if they dare to transgress the divine law and construct a likeness of any existing thing and deify it, he will scatter them into all the earth, and as those serving false-named ^D gods they will worship them. Then again, by comparison, he shows the omnipotence of God: "For inquire," he says, "of the days of old, which were before you, from the day that God created man upon the earth, from one end of the heaven to the other end of the heaven, whether"

^A anything such as this has happened, or whether you have heard anything like it, or whether a nation has heard the voice of the living God speaking out of the midst of the fire, as you have heard, and lived." He also narrates how He delivered them from the bitter servitude of the Egyptians. He constantly teaches them, however, how the God of all spoke to them from heaven, and, using a voice from the midst of the fire, gave them laws, so that they might not fashion any image of the invisible God. He teaches also how it is altogether impossible to fashion a divine image; for He has a nature not only invisible, but also altogether uncircumscribed. "For the Lord," he says, "your God, is God in heaven above, and upon the earth beneath, and there is none beside Him." ^B It must be known, however, that the prophet did not discuss all these things with the people in one day, but delivered this teaching to them over many days. Whence it comes about that he repeats the same words frequently, so that by constant iteration he might render their memory firm. Immediately, therefore, after this discourse, he narrates the matters concerning the cities to which he ordered those to flee who had fallen into unintentional homicide. Then he explains that he again gathered the people and renewed the memory of the laws given by God; and that he did not give a different law, but instructed them in the former one—those who, because of the imperfection of their age, were unable to hear the promulgation of that law—he will teach them the very words of the prophet: "For the Lord our God, he says, made a covenant with you in Horeb. Not with your fathers did the Lord make this covenant, but with you." ^C For since those had perished because of their transgression, and he was giving to these the land promised to the fathers, he says the law was given to these. Next, he recounts the commandments, the understanding of which we unfolded when we were interpreting Exodus. Here, he also shows what the purpose of the Sabbath rest was. For he said, "That your manservant and your maidservant may rest, as well as your beast of burden." Just as, he says, you enjoy the labor of these continually, so let the servants, the handmaids, and the beasts of burden enjoy rest at least once in the seven days of the week. Then, by making mention of the servitude in Egypt, he stirs up compassion: "For," he says, "you were a servant in Egypt, and the Lord brought you out from there with a strong hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God commanded that you should observe the day of the Sabbaths, and sanctify it." ^D Having learned by experience the bitterness of servitude, mindful of these things, be mild and gentle toward your subjects, and grant to them the rest which you enjoy perpetually on the seventh day of the week. In the things that follow, he does not prohibit spiritual work. For He said: "Every..."

^A servile work you shall not do," except for those things which are done for the soul, such as readings, the hearing of divine oracles, psalmodies, sacred ministrations, and things similar to these.

QUESTION II. How must that saying be understood: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one"?

We have often said that these terms, "Lord" and "God," are significative of the divine nature, not of the distinction of persons; whereas "Father," "Son," and "Holy Spirit" indicate the properties of the persons. But true theology could not be presented to the imperfect Jews, for they would have taken from it an occasion for polytheism. ^B For this reason, the divine name is pronounced in the singular in the Old Testament, though it nonetheless contains the hidden significations of the Trinity. For that statement, "The Lord your God, the Lord is one," both teaches the oneness of the substance and indicates the number of the persons; for "God" is placed once, but "Lord" twice.

QUESTION III. What is the meaning of: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart," and what follows?

The Lord has clearly taught us that no one can serve two masters. Here, therefore, we are taught not to divide our love between God and gold, between God and wife, between God and children, between God and ^C friends; but to consecrate the whole power of our love to God the Creator, and then, after the Creator, to distribute to each what is fitting—to parents, to a wife, to children, to brothers, and to friends. For it pertains to the love of God to fulfill these duties as well. "For he who loves me," He says, "will keep my commandments." And the commandments of God prescribe these things.

QUESTION IV. Why does the law command that one must swear by God?

So that they might not swear by false gods. For the same thing was said through the prophet: "If you remove the names of the Baalim from your mouth, and you swear: 'The Lord lives,' in truth [and in judgment and in righteousness]." ^D

^A And here, after having said, "You shall fear the Lord your God, and Him only shall you serve, and to Him shall you cleave, and by His name shall you swear," He added: "You shall not walk after foreign gods, from among the gods of the nations which are round about you."

QUESTION V. What is this: "You shall not tempt the Lord your God"?

The Lord has explained this in the holy Gospels. For when the devil had said, "Cast yourself down from above," He said: "You shall not tempt the Lord your God." He tempts God who does anything whatsoever rashly and without reason.

QUESTION VI. Why does the Law forbid contracting marriages with neighboring foreigners?

The Law needs no explanation, for it interprets itself. For it says: "Because they will turn your son away from Me, and he will serve other gods." Nevertheless, it also necessarily teaches them the reason for the divine care: "For it is not because you were more than the other nations, He says, that the Lord chose you, but because of the piety of your ancestors, and the promise made to them." ^B Then, showing that this is true, He added: "The Lord is true, keeping the covenant and showing mercy to those who love Him, and to those who keep His commandments, unto a thousand generations." And since they were immature, and were in need of milky sustenance, and were not able to be hearers of eternal goods, He promises to them an abundance of offspring, and fertility of the land, and the prosperity of flocks and herds, and the health of their bodies, and victory in wars, and other things of this kind. ^C Afterwards, He again reminds them of their life passed in the desert, and places the causes of it before their eyes: "For He afflicted you," He says, "and pressed you with hunger, and fed you with manna, so that He might inform you that man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceeds through the mouth of God." But from these things we also learn not to bear it heavily if we should fall into some calamities, but to embrace divine dispensations with a good mind, awaiting liberation from temptations. He also recounts other benefits: ^D "Your garments have not been worn out from you, your feet have not been calloused; behold, it is the fortieth year. And you shall know in your heart that just as a man instructs his son, so the Lord

your God ^A will instruct you; and you shall keep the commandments of the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, and to fear him. After the temptation comes the consolation; after the correction, the refreshment of the soul; hunger and nourishment, the labor of the journey and the robust health of the body, the scarcity of necessities and the sufficient abundance of incorruptible garments and footwear. Then he exhorts them, when they are victorious, not to attribute the victory to their own strength, but to God, their helper and champion.

INTERROGATION VII.

They were descended from the giants, as history teaches. For he said: "A numerous and tall people, the sons of Anak, whom you have seen and heard. Who shall stand against the face of the sons of Anak?" He added these words: "Whom you have seen and heard," to bring back to their memory the words of those who had explored that land, who indeed had said: "We were in their sight as locusts." By this means, ^B suppressing the arrogance conceived from their own strength, he admonishes them not to boast of their soul’s achievements. "Do not say," he says, "in your heart, that because of my righteousness the Lord has brought me in to possess this good land. For because of the impiety of these nations, the Lord will destroy them from before your face; it is not because of your righteousness, nor because of the holiness of your heart, that you are entering in to possess the land." He said these things while aiming at two goals at once: both to teach them to behave with modesty, and to attribute everything to God’s help, while also warning that they would suffer the same things as those nations if they should do similar deeds. In good time he also brought to their remembrance the transgressions committed ^C in the desert, establishing that argument, that they would not possess the land because of their own righteousness: "Remember," he said, "and do not forget how much you provoked the Lord your God in the desert." He brought up again here the worship of the calf; and how because of their impiety he had broken the divinely-given tablets, and how, by offering a fervent supplication, he had appeased God, who was greatly angered both at them and at Aaron: "For against Aaron," he says, "the Lord was greatly angered, to the point of destroying him, and I prayed for Aaron at that time." And thus, running through the rest of the deeds, he adds: "And now, Israel, what does the Lord your God ^D

^A require of you, except to fear the Lord your God, and to walk in all His commandments, and to serve the Lord your God with all your heart?" And so that they might not suspect that God legislated these things because He required sacrifices, He added: "Behold, the heaven of the Lord your God, and the heaven of heaven, and the earth, and all things that are contained in them. Yet the Lord chose your fathers to love them: and He chose their seed after them, that is, you, above all nations." By these words, we are taught that the children of righteous men enjoy benefits because of the piety of their ancestors.

Beyond this, He taught what sort of circumcision is pleasing to God: "For you shall circumcise," He says, "the hardness of your heart, and you shall not harden your neck anymore." These things were spoken to those who had not yet been circumcised; for Joshua, the son of Nave, after crossing the Jordan, circumcised them at Gilgal. Nevertheless, although they were not at all circumcised, He did not command them to circumcise the foreskin, but rather the hardness of the heart and the stiff neck. Therefore, the circumcision of the heart is far ^B more excellent. The Lord God further established this same accusation against them through the prophet Jeremiah: "For all nations," He says, "are uncircumcised in the flesh, but the house of Israel is uncircumcised in their hearts."

QUESTION VIII.

QUESTION IX.

Wherever they pitched their tents, they offered [index: entries preserved]

^A sacrifices to the Lord God, before the tabernacle was constructed, by building altars out of natural stone; but after its construction, they performed divine sacrifices in it, though they did not perform these in one single place, but at every station. For they were constantly moving, having spent, as it were, a forty-year period in the desert. He therefore forbids similar things in the land of promise, so that they might not find opportunity to sacrifice to false gods. He does, however, give instructions to perform the divine services only in that place which the Lord God shall choose. In that place, He commands them both to sacrifice and to feast. ^B "For there shall be," He says, "a place that the Lord your God shall choose, for His name to be called upon there; there you shall bring everything that I command you today, your whole burnt offerings, and your sacrifices," your tithes, and the firstfruits of your hands, and your gifts, and what follows. As for "gifts," others interpreted them as "voluntary offerings": that is, everything that you might wish to bring having possessed it. Then, having forbidden the offering of sacrifices in every place, if they desired to partake of meat, He permitted them to partake in the cities where they lived—with the priest sacrificing and the blood being poured out upon the ground; and He commanded that both the clean and the unclean should partake of such meats indifferently, teaching that such victims are common and not divine. For it was not lawful for the unclean to partake ^C of the sacrifices. Whence He fittingly added: "Eat it like a roe or a stag." For these were indeed clean, but they were not offered for sacrifice.

QUESTION X. Having legislated to offer tithes to the priests, how did He say: "You shall not be able to eat in your cities the tithes of your grain, and of your wine, and of your oil"? He commanded that two tithes of their goods be set apart, and that one be offered to the Levites, but that the other be sold, and the price of this be spent for their own feasting and for the care of widows, orphans, and aliens. And He commanded them to feast beside the divine temple. All this the all-wise One has legislated, ^D freeing them from the error of false gods. For since...

the teacher of impiety, having subjugated the human race with the enticements of gluttony and pleasure, had intermingled many stage-plays with the feasts of demons, the ingenious Lord ^A freed Israel from that error, and legislated concerning the feasts, and permitted sacrifices, and tolerated musical instruments, and commanded them to feast, cutting off the impiety of the idols by such delights.

QUESTION XI. Why does He so frequently forbid the eating of blood?

The legislator himself has asserted that the blood of the animal is its very soul. I think, however, that the law has another aim, namely, that it might heal their bloodthirsty disposition. For if to eat the blood of irrational creatures is to eat a soul, it will be much more unholy to separate a rational soul from the body.

QUESTION XII. By what power does a prophet who teaches contrary things perform miracles? ^B

Demons work by the permission of God. Thus, the magicians of Pharaoh performed the prodigy of the staff, and of the river, and of the frogs, the most wise God granting this on account of the madness of him who commanded it. For He ordered them to increase the heaven-sent plagues, yet they had no power to dissolve the punishments, nor indeed were they able to produce lice. For they performed only those things which God permitted; this He has shown here as well. For He said: "If ^C there should arise in your midst a prophet who dreams a dream, and gives a sign or a wonder, and the sign or the wonder comes to pass, of which he spoke to you, and says, 'Let us go and serve other gods which you do not know,' you shall not listen to that prophet, or to him who dreamed that dream, because the Lord your God is testing you, to see whether you love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your mind." ^D Therefore, by the permission of God, the false prophet performs wonders. But we are instructed not to give heed to signs, when he who performs them teaches things contrary to piety. Moreover, He commanded the false prophet to be killed, and the people to be freed from wicked doctrine: "For you shall remove," He says, "the evil from among you yourselves." And since it could happen that a brother, a friend, or a kinsman might serve this error and attempt to impose it upon others, He necessarily brought a law concerning this, and established...

^A that the teacher of impiety should be clearly identified, and that he who heard such words should be the first to cast a stone ^B; and then, in this way, all the people should stone the wicked one, and by their punishment others might be brought to their senses.

QUESTION XIII. ^C What is the meaning of: "You shall not practice augury, and you shall not make yourselves bald between your eyes for the dead"? He keeps them away from the customs of the impious nations. And by that phrase, "You shall not practice augury," He cast out divinations. For they called Phoebus, the false prophet, the Pythian. By the words, "You shall not make yourselves bald between your eyes for the dead," He prohibited immoderate mourning. For some of the foreign nations used to shave the hair from their heads and offer these to the dead; others shaved their beards, others their eyebrows. The divine law forbade these things from being done. And that He commanded two tenths of all things to be set aside, he has clearly made plain here. "For," He says, "you shall tithe all the produce of your seed, the produce of your field year by year; and you shall eat it before the Lord your God, in the place which the Lord your God shall choose for His name to be called upon there." But if there were but one tithe, how could it be possible for the Levites to receive it and yet the offerers also to feast upon it? But it is clear that He assigned one tithe to the Levites, and another for the feasts of those offering. And this is also made plain by what follows. "For if," He says, "the way be long from you, sell it, and taking the price, go to that place which the Lord your God shall choose, and give the money for whatever your soul desires, for oxen, or for sheep, or for wine, or for strong drink, or for everything that your soul desires; and you shall eat there before the Lord your God, you and your household, and the Levite ^D who is in your cities, because he has no portion or inheritance with you." Next, He decrees concerning those things which ought to be given to the Levites: "After three years you shall bring forth all the tithe..."

of your produce in that year; and you shall put it in your cities; and the Levite shall come, because he has no portion or inheritance with you; and the proselyte, and the orphan, and the widow, who are in your cities, shall come and shall eat, and shall be satisfied, so that the Lord your God may bless you in all the works which you do." ^A It is to be noted that Josephus, having seized an opportunity from this, or rather knowing the custom of the Jews well, inasmuch as he was himself a Jew, asserted that the law established that three tithes should be offered: one to the Levites, another to the orphans and widows, and a third for the feasting of those who offer them.

QUESTION XIV

QUESTION XV

QUESTION XVI

QUESTION XVII

^A If, however, anyone puffed up with pride should contradict the responses of the priest or the judge, let him be punished with death, and let this become a pattern of discipline for others.

INTERROGATION XVIII.

INTERROGATION XIX.

INTERROGATION XX.

INTERROGATION XXI.

QUESTION XXII.

QUESTION XXIII.

QUESTION XXIV.

QUESTION XXV.

so He rejects the evil fruit: "For he who is born of a harlot," He says, "shall not enter the assembly of the Lord."

QUESTION XXVI. Why does He prohibit mixing with the Moabites and Ammonites, not for a certain time, but forever?

In the first place, because of their shameful origin, since they were born of an illegitimate union. Then, because of the impiety to which they attempted to lead the Israelites, by adorning their wives, and through them alluring them to the worship of idols. However, He orders the Edomite and the Egyptian to be admitted after the third generation; the former as a brother, the latter as a benefactor ^B at a favorable time. For when famine struck, their fathers went into Egypt and were nourished. The Law therefore teaches us not to be unmindful of a benefit once bestowed upon us.

QUESTION XXVII. What is the meaning of, "For the Lord your God walks in your camp"?

It is often the case that the air, filled with a stench, causes pestilence. He therefore commands those who are encamped to bury the excrement that is discharged. And so that those who disobeyed might not suffer any harm, He appropriately added, "For the Lord your God walks in your camp," and teaches the reason: "To rescue you and deliver your enemy before your face." By this, He instructs ^C us to do nothing unlawful. For this is what He adds: "And your camp shall be holy, and no indecency shall be found in you."

QUESTION XXVIII. What is the meaning of *telesphoros* (one who initiates), and *teliskomenos* (one being initiated), and *teliskomene* (one being initiated [feminine])?

Just as we call those who share in the divine mysteries "the faithful," so the nations called those "initiated" who were instructed in the mysteries of certain demons. Therefore, He calls "initiator" (*telesphoros*) the one who leads the sacred rites, and "initiated" (*teliskomenos*) the one who is led into the sacred rites.

^A Q. XXIX. What is this: "Things which go out from your lips you shall observe"?

When you have promised something to God, consider what you have pledged as an obligation. Endeavor, therefore, to fulfill it as quickly as possible. For it says: "You shall not delay to fulfill your vow, because the Lord your God will surely require it of you, and it will be sin for you." ^B Afterward, teaching that it is within the power of the will to promise or not, He added: "But if you should choose not to vow, it will not be a sin to you." Hence also the blessed David says: "I will pay you my vows, which my lips uttered, and my mouth spoke in my affliction." Again, when bringing forward the law concerning leprosy, He makes mention of Miriam, saying: "Remember what the Lord your God did to Miriam on the way," implying that the plague was sent by God, which God inflicted upon them as they were sinning, and again caused to cease when they repented. Moreover, He also resolved the doubt regarding the threat against children. For He said: "Fathers shall not die for their children, nor children for their parents. Each shall die for his own sin." For it was possible that fathers might advise their children on what was profitable, but accomplish nothing because of their stubbornness, and that children might turn out better than their fathers.

^C Q. XXX. Why, when God commanded that the offender be struck with forty stripes, do the Jews inflict one less?

Because a greater number dishonors the one being beaten: "If they should add to beat him with more, your brother will be put to shame before you." They inflict one less so that, by maintaining the exact number, they might not, even against their will, dishonor the one being beaten by inflicting an excessive amount.

Q. XXXI. What is, "You shall not muzzle the ox that is treading"?

The holy Apostle clearly taught us the spiritual meaning of this commandment. ^D Yet the literal sense itself is also very pious. For it is unjust that he who plows the land and threshes the harvest with labor should not share in the fruit.

Q. XXXII. For what reason does He command that the brother of him who died without children, not wishing to marry his wife, be spat upon?

Imposing the necessity of loving one's brother through the disgrace...

inflicted. For it would have been better to provide for the dead out of natural affection. But because not all reverence the law of nature, He imposed upon them the necessity of infamy. ^A

INTERROGATION XXXIII

Why does He command that the Amalekites be utterly destroyed?

They were both impious and haters of their brothers. For although they traced their lineage from Esau, they were the first to undertake war against Israel, even though he was far away and had not yet reached their borders. Furthermore, He explains more clearly that He commanded two tithes to be set aside. Thus He says: "When you have finished tithing all the tithe of the produce of your land in the third year, you shall give the second tithe to the Levite, and to the resident alien, and to the widow, and to the orphan; and they shall eat in your cities and be satisfied" (21). That the prophet did not deliver this instruction to the people on a single day, these things also show. For he says: "Moses and the senate of Israel commanded, saying: 'Take heed to do all these commandments, as many as I command you this day.'" Then the Master God commanded that, after crossing the Jordan, they should set up two large stones, and coat them with lime, and inscribe the ^B commandments upon them; afterwards, to build an altar of natural stones on Mount Ebal, and to perform the prescribed sacrifices; and in addition to the others, like a certain thank-offering, the sacrifice of salvation; and after these things, to feast, praising God the Benefactor. ^C

INTERROGATION XXXIV

Why did He subject them to curses and blessings?

When the Master Christ presented perfect teachings to the perfect, He promised the kingdom of heaven to those who fulfill them, but threatened hell to those who transgress them. But to the Jews, possessed of a groveling and terrestrial mindset, He assigned curses and blessings pertaining to the earth. For how could those who did not believe even in the miracles they saw have accepted things pertaining to the life to come? It must be noted, moreover, that He assigned the blessings to the tribes descended from those born of the free women, and here He numbered the priestly rank together with the people ^D

^A of Joseph, which was double, He commanded to bless as one. He assigned the curses to the half-servants, and with them, for the sake of the number of the tribes, He placed Reuben and Zabulon: the former because he had fallen into sin, and the latter because he was the last of the sons of Lea. He commanded that they should curse, before all others, those who are impious towards the Divine Being and who worship manufactured idols. Next, those who act unlawfully towards their parents; for after God it is just to honor those through whom we have been brought into existence. Then those who mock the blind and who attempt to lead them astray from the straight path; and in general, all who transgress the aforementioned commandments. And when the priests spoke these things, He commanded the people to respond, "Fiat, fiat," receiving this sound from them as a sort of signature upon a document. ^B But to those who keep the divine commandments, He bestowed all manner of blessings: to those living in the cities and villages, prosperity of children, and many children; abundance of flocks and herds; fruitfulness of the land; tranquility in time of peace; and in wars, victory, and similar things. To these bodily blessings, He added a spiritual one: "The Lord shall establish you as a holy people for Himself, as He swore to your fathers." And He added this condition: "If you listen to the voice of the Lord your God, and walk in His ways." For those who see these things, or hear of them, will be struck with fear, reflecting upon the divine providence which you enjoy. ^C Furthermore, the saying "to be the head and not the tail" signifies to be a ruler and not a servant. For He added this: "And you shall then be above, and not below." Then again, He brings forward the curses, which contain the opposite of the aforementioned blessings: barrenness, hardship, destitution, diseases, misery, famine, pestilence, war, defeat, drought, and unfruitfulness of the land. For this is what the "iron earth and brazen heaven" signifies. Next, the things that occur in a siege: "You shall take a wife, and another man will come and take her; you shall build a house, and shall not dwell in it; you shall plant a vineyard, and shall not harvest it; your calf shall be slaughtered before you, and you shall not eat of it," and the following ^D verses have the same meaning. He adds also the threats of sores and various afflictions, and enslavements, and what is of all the most

^A severe: "The sojourner, he says, who is among you, shall rise above you, and you shall descend below." By these, he hints at the divine worship among the nations, and he foretold to them their unbelief, and the calamities from the Assyrians, and the Babylonians, and the Macedonians, and finally the siege by the Romans: "For you shall eat, he says, the offspring of your womb, the flesh of your sons and your daughters, which the Lord your God has given to you, in the distress and in the affliction with which your enemy shall afflict you;" and all the other things which the prophet Jeremiah recounted after the event of the matter when recording his lamentations. He threatened not only these, but also that he would bring upon them many other punishments of every kind for transgressing the divine commandments. He threatened them also with the slavery of the Egyptians, of which they had received an experience, and whose memory they held fresh. "For those who enslave you, he says, they shall sell you."

INTERROGATION XXXV

These curses, and these blessings, he had not given to their fathers. This book, therefore, has a certain new teaching compared to the others. The prophet also marked this. For after completing the discourse concerning the curses and the blessings, he added: "These are the words of the covenant which the Lord commanded Moses to set for the sons of Israel in the land of Moab, besides the covenant which he made with them in Horeb." For since he was about ^C to lead them into the land which he had promised, he necessarily both encourages them with the promises of goods, and terrifies them with the threats of punishments, and moves every stone for the healing of their souls.

INTERROGATION XXXVI

Why are there more curses than blessings? Wicked servants are not so much benefited by the promises of freedom as they are moved by the threats of the lash.

INTERROGATION XXXVII

How is that to be understood: "The Lord God gave you not a heart to know, and eyes to see, and ears to hear, until this day?" It should be understood in the same way as that: "He gave them up to a reprobate mind," and, "He delivered them up to vile passions," and, "The Lord hardened the heart of Pharaoh." For the ^D

^A author of good things is God, but of evil things, He is not the cause. For He shows what must be done, and He dissuades from contrary things, yet He does not force the human will, but yields to the freedom of the will. And since He permits the opposite to happen when He could prevent it, yet does not endure to prevent it, so that what is done may not come about by force and necessity (for that which is voluntary is the virtue that is praiseworthy), He called such permission a cause. Similar to this is what is said in the divine Gospels: "He has blinded their eyes, and hardened their heart." And yet He moved every stone so that they might attain salvation—working miracles, healing mutilated limbs, feeding in the desert, and commanding the elements. Therefore, He is not the cause of their unbelief. Why then did the Evangelist set forth the prophetic testimony? To show that God the Lord was ignorant of none of these things, but predicted them long before. "For by hearing," He says, "you shall hear, and you shall not understand; and seeing you shall see, and you shall not perceive." So also must that which is set down in this place be understood: "The Lord has not given you a heart to know, and eyes to see, and ears to hear, until this day." But if God did not give them the faculty of seeing, hearing, or reasoning, why does He curse them and punish those who do not transgress of their own accord? ^B But I think it is superfluous to speak at length about this. For it is plain even to the very foolish that He who proposes such a doctrine does not take away sight, but guides, illuminates, and points out the straight way. And the text which follows teaches this: "For I do not make this covenant and this curse for you only, but also for those who walk with you today before the Lord your God, and also for those who are not here with you today." And He who has care for those who will be in the future, how could He neglect those present and those who receive the law? Why, moreover, would He prescribe laws for those who are unable to understand? Furthermore, it must be known that the prophets frequently use human modes of speech as being more familiar. For some are accustomed, when rebuking servants or disciples, to say: "God has blinded your mind," or "God has made your ears deaf." The prophet does something of this sort here as well, and by customary words he rebukes their stupidity. ^{C D}

QUESTION XXXVIII. What is this: "If any man hear the words of this curse, and bless himself in his heart, saying: Peace will be to me, for I shall walk in the perversity of my heart"?

^A The Word describes here the one who renders himself stubborn against the divine commandments. For many violate the divine law out of sloth; yet many more despise the commandments out of stubbornness and pride. He sets such a person before our eyes here, as one who chooses an adversarial path and prefers the erroneous way to the straight one. To him He has threatened the ultimate destruction, so that he may be an example of impiety to all who see and hear him. Teaching them, moreover, that He is ignorant of nothing that is done in secret, He added: "The hidden things [belong] to the Lord your God, but the manifest things [belong] to you and to your children." As if to say, "Just as you know what is done in full view, so are the very motions of your thoughts manifest to me."

He also introduces a discourse concerning repentance: ^B "For if," He says, "you have transgressed the divine commandments and fallen into these curses, and becoming a prisoner of war you have received the yoke of slavery, then, employing a sober mind, you seek out the causes of the slavery and render the Legislator propitious to you, He, moved by mercy, will bring you back and restore to you your ancestral land." This has indeed happened many times, as the book of Judges, the history of the Kings, and the Chronicles clearly show. But those who later raged against the Savior were dispersed over the whole earth and sea; and though four hundred years have passed, they have not found a recall. ^C He also demonstrated the ease of observing the laws: "For this commandment," He says, "which I command to you today, is not too heavy, nor is it far from you; it is not in heaven, so that you might say: 'Who will ascend for us into heaven and take it for us, and hearing it we will do it?' Nor is it across the sea, so that you might say: 'Who will pass over across the sea, and take it for us, and cause us to hear it, and we will do it?'" You have no need of wings to fly, He says, nor of ships to travel, in order to learn what you ought to do. "But the word is very close to you, in your mouth, and in your heart, and in your hands, to do it." ^D By the mouth, He signifies the meditation upon the divine oracles; by the heart, the readiness of the soul; by the hands, the execution

of the commandments. The divine Paul also made use of ^A this testimony: "For if you shall confess with your mouth the Lord Jesus, and shall believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you shall be saved. For with the heart man believes unto justice; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation." He has also set forth the rewards of the observance of the laws and of their transgression—life and death.

INTERROGATION XXXIX.

They had no leisure, as they were waging war and besieging cities, and ^B thereafter, following their victory, they were dividing the land among the tribes, by peoples, by families, and individually; then building, cultivating the soil, and doing other things that it is necessary for those who have taken possession of the dominion of a foreign land to do. For this reason, in the seventh year, after they were released from these cares, he ordered the reading to take place.

INTERROGATION XL.

Not because these are animate and endowed with reason, but because they encompass all created things. The prophet Isaiah did the same thing: "For hear," he says, "O heaven, and give ear, O earth, for the Lord has spoken." The divine Jeremiah says the same: "For the heaven was astonished at this, and the earth shuddered more ^C vehemently, says the Lord." Since the Lawgiver called them to bear witness to the threat, it is with good reason that, after the transgression of the laws, they are said to have shuddered and to have been astonished. Thus, too, Jacob and Laban called the hill the hill of witness; and Abraham the patriarch and Abimelech, the king of the Gerarites, [called the well] the well of the oath, because they had entered into covenants there with an oath.

INTERROGATION XLI.

It was not one nation, but an infinite number, that believed in the Saviour Christ. And these were once foolish and senseless, as the blessed Paul says: "For we ourselves were also sometimes foolish, disbelieving, erring, serving diverse desires and pleasures," and what follows.

^A Just as therefore, he says, you, having abandoned the one God, have preferred many false-named ones, so I, having cast off the one people, will offer salvation to all the nations. But you indeed, though you honored those who were not gods, could not make them gods. But I will fill the senseless nations with divine wisdom; and you, seeing this, will pine away with envy.

^B QUESTION XLII. How should the following be understood: "Rejoice, O nations, with his people, and let all the angels of God strengthen them"?

And many myriads of the Jews believed in the Lord Christ, as did the majority of the nations throughout the inhabited world; but those who had believed from among the Jews delivered the teaching to the nations. For the divine apostles were from among the Jews. Therefore, the prophet, foretelling these things, said: "Rejoice, O nations, with his people," that is, with those who had believed from among the Jews; "and let all the angels of God strengthen them," namely, those who have believed in him. For indeed, when our Savior was born, a chorus of angels praised the divine love for mankind, crying out: "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will among men." And the archangel Gabriel foretold those births free from seed and free from birth pains. And in the struggle entered into against the devil, the hosts of angels were present. "For, coming up," he says, "angels were ministering to him." And they were present at the passion, and after the resurrection they stood by the tomb and said to the women: "Why do you seek the living among the dead?" And after the ascent into ^C heaven, they said to the holy apostles: "Why do you stand looking into heaven? This Jesus, who has been taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you watched him going into heaven." And an angel informed the centurion Cornelius regarding the great Peter. And the divine Apostle during the voyage said to those sailing with him: "An angel of the God whose I am appeared to me." And one might find many such things, if one wishes.

Having said these things, however, about those who believed, the prophet also foretells the punishments of the unbelievers and makes clear the causes of these. For he says as follows: "Because he avenges the blood of his sons, and he will take vengeance, and will render judgment to his enemies, and will render to those who hate him; and the Lord ^D will purge the land of his people." And by SONS, he

^A has called the saints, whom the murderers killed. For in order to omit the slaughters of the prophets and the saving passion of the Lord, they stoned the victorious Stephen, and killed the great James with a club; and for their gratification, Herod cruelly executed the other James. They dared to commit many other murders as well; and they ravaged the houses of those who had believed in the Lord. ^B And the divine Apostle has declared this in the Epistle to the Hebrews: "And you accepted the plundering of your property with joy." And writing to the Thessalonians, he also said: "For you became imitators of the saints who are in Judea; for you suffered the same things from your own countrymen, just as they did from the Jews, who killed both the Lord Jesus and their own prophets, and drove us out, and do not please God, and are hostile to all men." The Lord also accused them of these same things in the parable of the vineyard, that they beat some of the servants, killed others, and stoned others; for this reason He scattered them throughout the whole world.

QUESTION XLIII.

*Why was Moses commanded to see the land from afar, because of a slight offense, yet was forbidden to lead the people in?*

By these things, the Lord teaches us that he requires supreme virtue from those who are perfect in virtue; and although he is long-suffering toward other men who sin grievously, he does not grant this same indulgence to the saints. A certain wise man also said this: "The lowly one is worthy of mercy and pardon, but the mighty shall be mightily tested." And the Lord ^C says in the holy Gospels: "For to whom little is given, of him will little be required; but to whom much has been given, of him will much be required."

One must also know this, that the Lord orders some things through others. Just as, indeed, he did not allow this great prophet to lead the people into the land of promise, so that the Israelites might not worship him as God; for those who had deified inanimate things and called the image of a calf God, it is clear that they would have worshiped as God the servant who had been the instrument of such great blessings to them—for this reason, God, who wisely manages our affairs, has also kept his burial place unknown.

It is also necessary to know this, that Moses represents the Law, and therefore the law is called by the name of Moses: "They have," he says, "Moses and the prophets." And: "Until this day when Moses is read." And: "Death reigned from Adam until Moses." For just as we call Isaiah not only the prophet, but also his book; and Jeremiah and Ezekiel, not only the men ^D but also their books, and the Apostle,

not only himself the herald of the truth, but also his book—thus Moses is called the law, and Joshua the son of Nun is a type [(70)] of the Savior of the world. Therefore, just as Moses led the people out of Egypt, and Joshua led them into the promised land, so the law delivers those who obey it from impiety, but the grace of the Gospels leads them into the kingdom of heaven.

INTERR. XLIV. How are the blessings of the tribes to be understood?

In the first place, the prophet calls to their ^B remembrance the divine apparition which occurred on Mount Sinai. For, "The Lord," he says, "came from Sinai, and appeared to us from Seir, and shone forth from Mount Pharan with ten thousands of Kadesh: at his right hand were angels with him." [(71)] Both in the wilderness of Pharan and in Seir, they enjoyed divine providence. [(72)] But here he does not mean the wilderness by the name Kadesh, but interpretation of the name. For Kadesh in the Hebrew tongue signifies "holy." [(73)] He says, therefore, that many myriads of holy angels were with the holy Master, since He deigned to grant them His own ^C providence. And he necessarily added: "And all the sanctified are under His hands, and they are under Thee." [(74)] For although they possess an invisible nature, they nevertheless remain under Thy dominion, for they have Thee as their Creator. He further foretells that He who has now chosen Israel will, a little later, call all the nations as well, and will be the ruler and king of both. "For there shall be," he says, "a ruler in the beloved, with the peoples gathered together along with the tribes of Israel." [(75)]

Having said these things, he first blesses ^D Reuben, and dissolves the paternal curse, opposing fraternal love to the transgression committed against his father. As a lawgiver, he was able to change the curse into a blessing. "Let Reuben live, and not die, and let him be many in number." For since the father had said, "Do not effervesce like water," that is, do not become heated toward the multiplication of offspring, he naturally prays for a multitude of descendants for him. Then, passing over the order, he offers the blessing to Judah, on account of the Master who was to sprout from him according to the flesh. "For it is manifest," says the divine Apostle, "that our Lord has sprung from Judah." He also declares in advance the Davidic reign.

^A "Hear, O Lord," he says, "the voice of Judah, and let his hands come to his people; his hands shall judge for him, and thou shalt be a helper against his enemies." Having thus blessed the royal tribe, he passes to the priestly one: "Give to Levi his manifestations, and his truth to the holy man." The breastplate was laid upon the breast of the priest; it contained both the manifestation and the truth, for many things were signified from thence; and truth was joined to the manifestations, because of the truthfulness of the things signified. ^B "He whom they tempted in temptation, and reviled at the water of contradiction." He reminds them of what had been committed against him and his brother. "Who said to his father and his mother, I have not seen thee; and he did not know his brothers, and he rejected his sons." "He kept thy sayings, and observed thy covenant." The word teaches the perfection of the priests. For it is fitting for the priest to despise all things pertaining to the life of the world, and to be assiduous in divine ministry. For this reason, He did not assign them an inheritance, nor did He ordain that they should possess property, but that they should receive firstfruits and tithes from all the people, so that, freed from the cares of this life, they might holily perform the sanctification entrusted to them. For example, Aaron, the first high priest, was not even permitted to perform the funeral rites for his deceased sons. Thus he says: "When they have perfected themselves, they shall teach Jacob thy justifications, and Israel thy law; they shall place incense in thy wrath always upon thy altar." This also happened while the people were being punished. For Aaron, by offering the incense, restrained the death that was being sent by God. Then he asks for a blessing for them: ^C "Bless, O Lord, his strength, and accept the works of his hands." For those who minister to God have need also of bodily strength, that nothing might stand in the way of their readiness of mind. "Crush the loins of his enemies that rise up, and let not those that hate him rise again." By these things he suppresses the boldness of tyrants, and brings to memory what Core, Dathan, and Abiron suffered, for having moved sedition against the priests.

INTERR. XLV. Why did he place Benjamin in the fourth place, when he was the last? ^D His tribe had the metropolis, in which

^A the temple was built. Therefore, he rightly assigned the sacred place to the priestly tribe. And the blessing itself predicts this: "The beloved, it says, of the Lord, shall dwell in confidence." He also shows the cause of this confidence: "And the Lord shall overshadow him all the days, and He shall rest between his shoulders." For, approaching the divine temple, he enjoyed the divine providence continually. The phrase, "He shall rest between his shoulders," he said of God, who, having commanded the temple to be built in Jerusalem, manifested His own presence in a particular way therein.

After these tribes, he blesses Joseph, and confers the blessing upon the two tribes at once. "From the blessing of the Lord is his land; from the hours of heaven and dew, and from the deep fountains beneath, and according to the season of the turning of the sun’s fruits, and from the conjunction of the months, and from the summit ^B of the ancient mountains, and from the summit of the everlasting hills." He prayed for him for the good things that are bestowed from heaven, and the fruits that are provided by the earth: which rains water, dews nourish, and the sun ripens according to the periods of the seasons and months. This, the flat land brings forth, and the mountainous as well; and to confirm the blessing, he reminded them of the God who appeared in the bush. He says, moreover, that he attained the rights of primogeniture, and that for this reason the tribe was divided in two, and two were made from one, because the firstborn received a double portion. And, teaching the power of the tribes, he compared them to the unicorn and to the bull; and he placed Ephraim before Manasseh, according to the blessing of their forefather.

For Zabulon and for Issachar, for the one as dwelling by the sea, and for the other as inhabiting the neighboring land, he prayed both for victory in wars and for divine ^C help, and for the good things from the sea. "For nations," he says, "they shall extirpate, and shall call upon [God] there, and shall sacrifice the sacrifice of righteousness, and shall suck the wealth of the sea, and the commerce of those inhabiting by the sea." For those who are near the sea enjoy not only their own fruits, but also the good things brought from everywhere.

He compared Gad to a lion; for thus also the patriarch Jacob said: "Gad, a pirate troop shall waylay him, but he shall waylay them at their heels." He also called Dan a lion's whelp.

^A springing from Bashan; because having suddenly attacked the city of Laish, they took it, killed its inhabitants, and made it their own dwelling place. And regarding the tribe of Naphtali, he proclaimed the fruitfulness of land and sea, for this tribe also dwelt by the sea, having Galilee to the south; this is what the prophet and the evangelist said: "The land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, and the rest [who are] inhabiting the maritime Galilee of the Gentiles; the people who sat in darkness have seen a great light." Moreover, as to the phrase "abundance of what is acceptable," Symmachus interpreted it as "satiety of good pleasure"; which have the same meaning, for things that are acceptable are those which please. Finally, regarding Asher, he asks for the rich fruits of the earth and the riches of the sea. For indeed that which is written: "He shall dip his foot in oil, and iron and brass shall be his shoe," signifies ^B an abundance of goods.

298 INTERR. XLVI. Cur non benedixit Simeoni?

QUESTION XLVI. Why did he not bless Simeon?

The fraternal love of Reuben was the occasion of his blessing; for because of it he was freed from the curse. Levi likewise obtained the blessing through that great man, Moses; for that tribe, which dissolved the curses of others, was much more dissolving its own. Furthermore, Simeon had no cause why he should deserve to obtain a blessing. I, however, consider that he had been the primary author of the plot formed against Joseph; and a proof of this is that the aforesaid admirable man [Joseph] gave orders for all the others to be set free, but for him alone to be seized, bound, and thrust into prison. ^C But he nonetheless did not lack a blessing, because [God] did not only give a particular blessing to each tribe, but also a common one to the whole people: "For Israel," he says, "shall dwell confidently alone in the land of Jacob, in a land of grain and wine, and the heaven shall drop down dew upon thee." And he added many other things to the common blessing. When, therefore, the blessings were finished, the Lord God showed the prophet the entire land, but he forbade him to enter it. And this is a prototype of that which was said by our Savior: "Many prophets and righteous [men] have desired to see what you see, and did not see [it], and to hear what you hear, and did not hear [it]." ^D

ON JOSHUA SON OF NUN

299* IN JOSHUA SON OF NUN

^A "And it came to pass after the death of Moses the servant of the Lord, that the Lord spoke to Joshua the son of Nun, the minister of Moses, saying: Moses my servant is dead. Now therefore arise, go over this Jordan, you and all this people, into the land which I give them." The all-wise Paul taught us that the Old Testament was a figure of the New: "All these things, he says, happened to them in figure, and they were written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the ages have come." And writing to the Galatians, he said: "It is written that Abraham had two sons, one by the bondwoman, and one by the free. But he who was of the bondwoman was born according to the flesh: but he who was of the free, by promise: which things are said by an allegory. For these are the two testaments," and what follows. He wrote these things not to reject the history, but to compare the figure with the truth, ^B Abraham with God, the two wives with the two testaments, the sons with the peoples. Thus, therefore, in this place we must understand Moses to be the Law, and Joshua to be the Savior, who bears the same name as he. That the Law is also called Moses, we have already demonstrated, using the testimony of divine Scripture: "They have, he says, Moses and the prophets." And: "Until this day, when Moses is read, a veil is upon their heart." As, therefore, according to the history, after Moses had died, Joshua led the people into the promised land, so after the end of the Law, our Jesus, having appeared, opened the kingdom of heaven to the pious people. "For Christ is the end of the Law, unto righteousness to every one that believeth." And: "The law and the prophets were until John: ^C but from the days of John the kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, and the violent take it by force."

INTERROGATION I.

INTERROGATION II.

^A The heralds of the truth also inherited Antilibanus, which also seems obscurely to signify the salvation of the nations, since Jerusalem was also called Lebanon. "For the eagle," he says, "with great wings, which has the purpose to enter into Lebanon, and plucked off the tender parts of the cedar and of the cypress." For he called the Babylonian king the eagle; Jerusalem, Lebanon; and the tender parts of the cedar and the cypress, the king and the princes. Our Jesus sent forth such people, not only as spies, but also as leaders. And just as the spies sent by Joshua, the son of Nun, saved the harlot who believed, having given her the scarlet cord as a symbol of salvation; so too, the apostles of our Savior brought back from her former intemperance the harlot of old, that is, the Church, which had been devoted to various idols, and counted her worthy of eternal goods—not using a scarlet cord as a sign, but ^B obtaining salvation through the most holy blood. Let no one, therefore, think Rahab unworthy of being a figure of the Church, but let him hear the Apostle saying: "For we ourselves were also once foolish, disobedient, erring, serving various desires and pleasures, living in malice and envy, hateful, and hating one another." And again: "But then, as not knowing God, you served those which by nature are not gods." And elsewhere: "For you were once darkness, but now you are light in the Lord." And in another place: "Do not err; neither fornicators, nor adulterers, nor the effeminate, nor abusers of themselves with mankind, nor idolaters, nor covetous, nor thieves, nor ^C revilers, nor drunkards, nor extortioners, shall inherit the kingdom of God." Then he adds: "And such were some of you, but you were washed, but you were sanctified, but you were justified in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, and by the Spirit of our God." Thus, also, Rahab was a harlot at first, but she received the spies faithfully; and when the king ordered them to be handed over, she did not yield, but hid them; for she believed in the God of the Hebrews, and her words declare her faith: "For I know," she says, "that the Lord your God has delivered the land to you. For the fear of you has fallen upon us. For ^D we have heard that the Lord God dried up the Red Sea before you, when you came out of Egypt; and whatever you did to the two kings of the Amorites who were beyond the Jordan, to Sihon and to Og, whom you destroyed. We, therefore, when we heard this, were astounded—

^A in our heart, and there is no spirit in any man against you, because the Lord your God is God in heaven above and on earth ^B below." That word which the Lord God said regarding Pharaoh is therefore true: "For this very purpose I have raised you up, that I might show my power in you, and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth." For by these things which were done against him, the God of the Hebrews became known to all. And the agreement of the spies strongly accords with the truth. "For whoever," they said, "shall go out the door of your house, he shall be responsible for himself, and we shall be innocent regarding your word." But to us also, salvation comes through the Church; and those who are outside it do not enjoy eternal life. And the remaining things in the history prefigure the truth. For when they were about to cross the Jordan, the Lord said to Joshua: "On this day I begin to exalt you in the sight of the sons of Israel." This also happened in truth. For just as Joshua, the son of Nun, was shown by the miracle at the Jordan to be a man beloved of God, ^C so also our Jesus, after the Jordan and the baptism received from John, made the beginning of his teaching and his miracles. But perhaps to some it seems inappropriate that this, "On this day I begin to exalt you," should be applied to the Lord and Savior. But let them hear him saying to the Father: "Father, glorify me with the glory which I had with you before the world was." And the Apostle also says: "Therefore God also highly exalted him, and gave him the name which is above every name." Being exalted, he did not receive what he did not have, but manifested what he had; for being unknown as the Son of the God of all, he was shown to be such, the Father saying at the Jordan: "This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." ^D The priests who carried the ark of the covenant of the Lord also prefigure John the Baptist. For he too was a priest, and the son of the high priest. Just as, therefore, with the priests carrying the ark and having entered the Jordan first, and with Joshua the leader and prophet, the entire people crossed over; so clearly, after John began to baptize, and Jesus the Savior sanctified the nature of the waters, the pious people enter the kingdom of heaven through the most holy baptism. Furthermore, the twelve men, and the stones in the same number, designated the choir of the apostles. For they...

^A were themselves both builders and foundations; for it is written: "Built," he says, "upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets." And again, the same Apostle said, "I, as a wise master builder, have laid the foundation." Symmachus interpreted the term *pēgma* (condensation) as *askōma*, that is, a swelling like an inflated wineskin. For the rush of the waters, being held back, was as it were bulging and rising to a peak; for the boundary set by the Creator held them back more strongly than any wall of adamant. And the crossing took place before the Passover; for having crossed on the tenth day, they celebrated the feast of the Passover on the fourteenth. Indeed, in truth, the participation in the immaculate Lamb takes place after the saving baptism.

QUESTION III.

These words declare the truth most especially. For those who had received the Mosaic circumcision, the heralds of the Gospels brought the spiritual circumcision. "Believe, therefore," they said, "and let each of you be baptized in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, and you shall receive the promise of the Holy Spirit." This the divine Apostle called non-hand-made ^B circumcision. And elsewhere he says, "Circumcision is of the heart, in the spirit, not in the letter." Those, therefore, from among the Jews who had believed in the Savior, while possessing the Mosaic circumcision, additionally received the spiritual one. Thus, that expression "a second time" prefigures the truth; for it is impossible for the flesh to be circumcised twice. But the interpretation taken from the surface of the letter signifies this: that just as God had given this law to Abraham from the beginning, so also he commanded Joshua a second time to circumcise those who were not circumcised. It is ^C fitting to mourn for the Jews, who are unable to perceive that the circumcised perished, having fallen victim to various punishments, while the uncircumcised were saved; and that the fathers perished, while the sons received what had been promised. Thus we, too, being children, receive the kingdom of heaven; but the Jews, who held the place of the fathers, fell from the eternal goods and were cast out of the lineage of the patriarchs. From these things, therefore, they ought to have learned that the matter of circumcision was not always necessary. For when the Lord God ^D foretold to Abraham the time of his sojourn, he commanded that he be circumcised: but when they had been delivered from the servitude of the Egyptians, and were living in the desert, he did not

demand the keeping of this law, nor did he exact penalties for its transgression ^A. Because they were living by themselves and were removed from the intermingling of foreign nations, they did not need the sign of circumcision. But when, finally, He brought them into the promised land, He commanded them to be circumcised, so that ^B intermingling might not harm their piety. For if it also happened that someone should fall into some deception, it was easy to see the sign, just as sheep, if they stray, are easily recovered.

QUESTION IV. Why did He order them to be circumcised with stone knives?

The number of those to be circumcised was immense, and the circumcision had to be done quickly, so as to celebrate the feast of the Passover. It was therefore likely that those who had spent so much time in the desert did not have many knives made of iron. Otherwise, those stone knives also prefigure our circumcision. For the rock was the Lord Christ. "For they drank," He says, "of the spiritual rock that followed them: and the rock was Christ." But He Himself is also called a sword: "For the word of God," He says, "is living and effectual, and more piercing than any two-edged sword." And His saving doctrine brings us spiritual circumcision. However, history has taught that many of those born in Egypt did not receive circumcision, the parents fearing, ^C as is likely, on account of the destruction of the infants, to apply the circumcision to them. But almost all, with few exceptions, who were born in the desert remained uncircumcised. The place was called Galgala, and the name denotes liberty. Then the God of all said: "This day have I taken away from you the reproach of Egypt." The word signifies deliverance from Egyptian servitude and impiety, and the acquisition of the promised land. And we also learn that he who has been deemed worthy of most holy baptism, and has received spiritual circumcision, puts off the reproach of sin.

QUESTION V. Who is to be thought the prince of the host of the Lord?

Some say that God the Word appeared; I, however, believe it to be Michael ^D the archangel. For when they had sinned—

the God of the universe said: “I will not ascend with you, because it is a stiff-necked people; but I will send My angel before your face, who shall go before you” (Exod. xxxiii, 2, 3). I believe it was he who was seen by Joshua at this time, encouraging him and signifying the divine assistance. ^A

INTERROGATION VI. How then did he use the divine words: “For loose the sandal from your feet, because the place upon which you stand is holy” (Josue v, 16)? ^B

Since the God of all had said to him, “As I was with Moses, so will I be with you” (Josue i, 5), for this reason, he hears what that other had heard, that he might become more confident, as having attained the same dignity.

INTERROGATION VII. Why did He command the city of Jericho to be made anathema (Josue vi, 17)?

They captured this city first after crossing the river. Therefore, just as He commanded them to offer to Him the first fruits of the crops, so He ordered them to offer the first fruits of the spoils. Moreover, he exercised them through these laws, so that they might observe the necessary laws. He demonstrated His own power to them in that he caused the first city to be captured without weapons or siege engines, and it was destroyed by the sound of the trumpets alone, so that when they were defeated in battle, they might know that they themselves had given the occasions for their succumbing by scorning the divine laws. ^C

INTERROGATION VIII. Why did Rahab, being a foreigner, dwell among the sons of Israel, as the history teaches (ibid. 25)?

This also prefigures our own circumstances. For the Lord said: “And other sheep I have, which are not of this fold; them also I must bring, and they shall hear My voice, and there shall be one fold and one shepherd” (Joan. x, 16). For this reason, also, when He was giving the law, He said: “One law shall be for the stranger and the native” (Num. xv, 29). For this reason, Moses the lawgiver did not forbid the Egyptians who wished to depart with them. And it was fitting, as the blessed Paul says (Rom. xi, 24), for the wild olive to be grafted into the good olive tree. ^D

^A

INTERR. IX.

Because he had dedicated this city to God, it was deservedly destroyed by Him. For he thought it absurd that what had been given to God should become a common dwelling place. And he cursed those who should restore it, so that if anyone attempted to transgress the decree, he who laid the foundations would lose his firstborn son, and he who set up the gates would lose his last. The history of the Kingdoms also makes mention of this curse.

^B

INTERROGATION X.

The thief supposed that he would escape the notice of God, just as he did with men. God, therefore, wished to expose him and to strike fear into all, so that those who are observers of the divine laws might convict the transgressors, lest they become participants in the inevitable punishment. Aquila translated the "varied garment" as *stola* (robe); Josephus as *penula* (mantle); and the "tongue" as *massa aurea* (a gold bar). It is evident from this place that the valley which is called Achor by the prophets is the one in which Achar was covered with stones. For indeed, *Emek-Achor* is translated as the valley of Achor.

^C

INTERR. XI.

He teaches that those who trust in divine aid should also make use of human devices. For since they had captured the first city by the sound of trumpets alone, they very reasonably learn to contend and labor, and to await divine assistance. For immediately, as they fought, God helped them and consumed all those who were fleeing with violent lightning bolts and hail. However, Joshua, by which he urged on those lying in ambush, was translated as *clypeus* (shield) by Josephus, and likewise by Symmachus.

QUESTIO IN JOSHUA CHAP. IX. QUESTIO XII.

^A Some accuse the prophet of cruelty, because he slaughtered everyone entirely and crucified the kings. He who accuses the prophet, accuses also Him who commanded these things. For God, the God of all, commanded through Moses the lawgiver that all who inhabited that land should be utterly destroyed, seeing as they had committed things worthy of total destruction and had reached the extreme of wickedness. On account of this, He even brought the flood upon them long ago, and consumed Sodom and Gomorrah with fire. And the prophet also commanded the princes to place their feet upon the necks of the kings, so that, having taken courage, they might contend more zealously. Our Lord Jesus also commanded this. B ^B "For behold," He said, "I have given you the authority to tread upon serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the enemy." May it be granted, therefore, to us also to place our feet upon the necks of the opposing spirits.

QUESTION XIII.

Why did he designate the Gibeonites to chop wood and carry water? They deceived him both by their appearance and by the falsehood of their words. And although it was fitting to ask the Master God, and then to make covenants with them, they believed their lying words and allowed themselves to be persuaded, and confirmed the covenants with an oath. But the God of all had commanded that all those people be delivered to death. Joshua, therefore, being caught between the divine commandment and the oaths, made them ministers of the sacred service. ^C It is not, however, a dishonor to serve God, but a very great honor. Moreover, it was necessary for the prediction of Noah also to receive its fulfillment. For he said: "Cursed is Canaan; a child, he shall be a servant to his brothers." And in the Gibeonites this prediction received its fulfillment.

QUESTION XIV.

What is the meaning of: "Is not this written in the book that was found?" When the author of the prophet had taught us the power [of Joshua], namely that he had restrained the progress of the great luminaries by a word alone until he had conquered completely, ^D suspecting that someone might not put faith in the account, he said that this was to be found in the ancient record.

^A Wherefore it is evident from this passage that some one of those who came after wrote this book, having derived his materials from another book. And this also prefigures the wondrous deed of the Savior. For just as when the prophet was fighting, the sun stood still, so when our Savior was dissolving death by His own death, the sun held back its rays and filled the earth with darkness at midday.

INTERR. XV. *How is that saying to be understood: "It came from the Lord to harden their heart, so that they should go to meet Israel in battle, that they might be utterly destroyed, and that they might not obtain mercy," in the way that the Lord spoke to Moses?*

Deeming that God had given a law to Israel concerning the other nations: that if, while the Israelites were besieging some city, those [besieged] should send an embassy and ask for friendship, they were to accept the embassy, break off the siege, and enter into peace with them. We are therefore taught by this discourse that God, governing all things by balance and measure, permits these people to fight against Israel in opposition, so that they may not obtain any mercy but may be destroyed according to the divine sentence. ^B

INTERR. XVI. *Why does Moses distribute the lots of the land to some, while Joshua distributes them to others?*

This anew prefigures the truth. For Moses divided the land to those on *this* side of the Jordan, but Joshua to those on the other side of the Jordan. And those indeed who received lots through Moses bear the figure of the Jews, but those who received them through Joshua [bear the figure] of the nations that have believed. And since Israel was the firstborn, those who were firstborn received their lots through the hand of Moses: Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh. Nevertheless, these men even themselves, girded and ready, crossed over before the others; for those from among the Jews who have believed brought salvation to the nations. ^C Nevertheless, the Jebusites and Canaanites and other nations of foreign origin were left behind, and they dwelt with Israel; and it is possible to find the truth of this figure. For not all received the saving Word, but some, both of Jews and Greeks, remained hardened, yet dwelling with us in the same cities and villages; and if one were to name them Jebusites, Hittites, and Canaanites, he would not be mistaken. And those who embrace the abominable dogmas of the heresies are worthy of this appellation. Wherefore the divine Paul says: "But now we do not yet see all things ^D

^A subjected to him. And again: "For he must reign, until he put all his enemies under his feet."

QUESTION XVII. *Why did Caleb request Hebron?* Adorned with piety, he preferred above all the city in which the most excellent patriarchs dwelt and were buried. And his discourse reveals that, having waged war for seven years, they divided the land. For Caleb speaks thus: "I was forty years old when Moses the servant of the Lord sent me from Cades-Barne to spy out the land, and now the Lord has sustained me as he said. This is the forty-fifth year since the Lord spoke to Moses." After the sentence of God passed against the six hundred thousand men, they spent thirty-eight years living in the desert; seven, therefore, are the years remaining to complete eighty-five [sic]. ^B This also the Master of all had foretold through the most divine Moses: "When the Lord your God brings you into the land which he promised to your fathers, after seven years you shall read this law to all the people." It should be noted that he calls Jerusalem "Jebus," and says that it fell by lot to Benjamin. But Simeon, according to the prophecy of the father, had a scattered inheritance. "For," he says, "his inheritance was in the midst of the lot of the children of Judah." Then, having listed the cities, he added: "This is the inheritance of the tribe of the children of Simeon. Because the portion of the inheritance of the children of Judah exceeded their number, the children of Simeon ^C obtained an inheritance in the midst of their lot."

QUESTION XVIII. *For what reason did the most divine Joshua, while distributing the land to others, not assign a portion to himself, but received from the people the city named Thamnasachar?* He imitates in this also the humility of the Master. "For learn from me," he says, "that I am meek and humble of heart, and you will find rest for your souls." And he underwent the most extreme poverty, so as not even to possess a house. "For the Son," he says, "of man has not where he may recline his head." Since, therefore, ^D

^A Joshua was a type of him who bears the same name, he did not assign to himself an inheritance, but accepted that which was offered; teaching those who are entrusted with any office, not to be concerned for their own interests, but for the benefit of their subjects.

INTERROGATION XIX.

In the desert also, while they were making the journey, they were joined to the tribe of Judah. For both the priests and the tribe of Judah were allotted the eastern portion; and here again they were assigned an inheritance with the tribe of Judah, since there was also mixing of these tribes. ^B For Aaron, the first high priest, took the daughter of Aminadab; and Joiada, the most illustrious high priest, took the sister of Ahaziah. The Lord permitted these tribes to intermingle, He who, having sprung from Judah according to the flesh, became not only king, but also high priest. It was also fitting for them to dwell in the tribe of Benjamin, since the divine temple was to be built in that tribe. They also received some cities from the tribe of Simeon, since the lot of these also bordered on the temple. For just as He granted the tithes of the fruits of the earth and of the flocks to the priests and the Levites, so He commanded that the tithes, as it were, of the cities should be given to them. These tithes, indeed, the patriarch Jacob had promised that he would give to God. "For of all," he said, "that Thou shalt give me, I will tithe a tenth part to Thee." The people were therefore ^C paying a paternal debt, not offering a gift. Moreover, it also comprised a portion of their land. But when the war had ended, and the division had been made, those who had received their lots beyond the river departed. But before they crossed the river, they built a very great altar. The nine tribes, being ignorant of the intention of the building, and suspecting the structure to be the beginning of impiety, resolved to march against them with the whole nation, preferring religion to kinship. But the most wise Joshua and Eleazar sent Phinehas, as one who had shown zeal against impiety in the desert, so that he might bring to their remembrance the deeds of their ancestors and the divine benefits, and recall them from their iniquity. But after they departed and learned that ^D this novelty had not been introduced for the sake of worship and religion, but perceived that that altar was called a monument of the communion of holy things, so that

^A their descendants might be able to show it as a refutation of those who attempted to exclude them from the divine festivals; they departed full of joy, and praising God for the piety of their brethren and the common peace of all. The Jews of the present day ought also to know and to declare this, that their altar was not the true altar, but that it foreshadowed the true one.

Therefore, the prophet, being about to depart from this life, convened all the people and exhorted them not to contract any marriages with the native inhabitants, since such association provides occasions for impiety. And to his exhortation he added threats: "For if," he says, "you do this, know that the Lord will no longer continue to destroy these nations from before you; but they will be for you as snares, and as stumbling blocks in your sides, and as goads in your eyes, until you perish from this good land which the Lord your God has given you." ^B The history of the Judges has taught us these things more clearly. We know also the cause on account of which they did not take possession of the whole land, as God had promised: for by embracing the kinship of the impious nations and imitating their impiety, they were stripped of divine assistance and compelled to serve them.

Admirable, too, and full of philosophy is his discourse concerning death: "For I," he said, "am going the way that all who are on the earth go." He also demonstrates to them the truthfulness of the divine prediction: "And you shall know in your heart and in your soul that not one of all the good words which the Lord your God spoke to you concerning you has failed; all he has spoken to us, he has given to us; none of them has been lacking." He says that you have learned the truth of the divine promises from the benefits provided, for he has fulfilled what he promised. Hence, therefore, learn also the certainty of the threats. For this is what he added: ^C "And it shall come to pass, that just as all the good words which the Lord spoke regarding you have come upon you, so the Lord will bring upon you all the evil words, until he destroys you from this good land which the Lord your God has given you, if you transgress the covenant of the Lord your God which he has made with you."

Wishing, moreover, to teach them that these were not human words, he added: "For thus saith the Lord God of Israel." And he made mention of Terah, the father of Abraham and ^D of Nahor; where he mentioned Nahor on account of

the maternal lineage, for from him were Rebecca, and Leah, and Rachel. ^A Then he teaches how Terah worshipped other gods, and how on this account the Lord God, separating Abraham, brought him over into that land. He added also the descent of Jacob into Egypt, and the exodus finished by the hand of Moses, and the miracle in the sea, and the life lived in the desert, and the slaughter of the Amorites; and the plots of Balak, and the blessings given by Balaam against his will, and the unheard-of crossing of the river, and the destruction of the enemies that rose up, and finally the enjoyment of every kind of good. 319 He urges them to withdraw from the worship of alien gods, and to serve only the God who created and saved them. He proposed to them an option: "Choose for ^B yourselves today whom you shall serve: whether the gods of your fathers, who dwelt beyond the river, or the gods of the Amorites, among whom you dwell in their land." And so, having proposed to others the faculty of choosing, he declares the piety of his own intention. For he says: "I and my house will serve the Lord God, because he is holy." Then, when the people had rejected the worship of false gods, promising to serve the Saviour God alone, the most divine Joshua, taking them up, said to them: "You will not be able to serve the Lord, because God is holy; and he who is jealous for you will not bear your iniquities and your sins, whenever you have forsaken the Lord and served other gods; and he will depart and afflict you, and consume you, in exchange for the benefits with which he has benefited you." ^C Do not expect, he says, that you will also enjoy the same benefits while acting wickedly. For the Lord God knows not only how to benefit, but also how to punish transgressors. To those who embraced such a proposition and promised to serve the Lord, he congruously added: "You are witnesses against yourselves, that you have chosen the Lord to serve him." This history also teaches that when he had admonished them to be delivered from the worship of alien gods, and had given them laws concerning religion, he did not leave these without letters, but provided a written record of their memory. 320 But he also punishes those who transgress. ^D When they too had accepted this proposal and promised to serve the Lord, he necessarily added: "You are witnesses against yourselves that you have chosen to serve the Lord." This history teaches that when he had exhorted them to be freed from the worship of alien gods, and had legislated concerning piety, he did not leave these without writing, but made the memory of them a written record.

^A Q. Why did he say, upon setting up the stone: “Behold, this stone shall be for a testimony among you, for it has heard all the words which were spoken by the Lord, which He spoke to you this day?” The stone is indeed inanimate; but he makes use of the inanimate to rebuke those endowed with soul and reason, following an ancient custom. For Jacob and Laban, when they made their covenant, called the hill a witness to their covenant. The history teaches how much a pious and God-loving leader benefits a people. ^B “For,” it says, “Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders who prolonged their time with Joshua, and who saw all the works of the Lord which He did for Israel.” After their death, they turned to impiety; for the end of the history teaches this precisely. Yet they paid the penalty for their impiety; for, stripped of divine protection, they were subjected to the yoke of servitude and had the king of the Moabites as their master. But the benevolent Lord, remembering the promise made to the fathers, limited the time of their servitude to eighteen years.

ON JUDGES

^C INTERROGATION I. Why is the book called the book of Judges?

RESPONSE. Just as the book of Kingdoms contains many and various stories, yet is called Kingdoms because it recounts those things that happened to the people during the time of the kings, so also this book before us is named Judges, because it teaches the things that occurred during the time when the people were ruled by judges. I believe, however, that the beginning of this history is a certain summary of the achievements of Joshua, son of Nun. For it mentions also Adonibezek, and the war against

^A against him were performed, and how he was defeated and destroyed. He also makes mention of the land of Hebron, as having been assigned to Caleb; and likewise of the slaughter of the three giants, Arad, Ahiman, and Talmai, whom he called sons of Anak. It is probable that their slaughter was foretold at that time, and that the prophecy was fulfilled later.

^B INTERROGATION II. If Jerusalem had already been overthrown at that time, how did David, when he reigned, later capture it by siege? The people underwent many vicissitudes, as the history of Judges teaches. For sometimes they conquered, and sometimes they were defeated; and at times they ruled over foreigners, while at other times they served them. It is clear, therefore, that after Jerusalem was burned, it was rebuilt by the Jebusites, who took advantage of the distress of the people. Furthermore, I believe that this book was written at a later time, taking as proof the fact that the history calls the city Jerusalem, a name given to it later, whereas it was previously called Jebus.

^C INTERROGATION III. What is the meaning of this: “Give me a blessing of water, and a blessing of the upper lands, and a blessing of the lower lands”? Symmachus interprets it as “irrigation of water,” and for “lower lands” he said “fields.” Now, Achsah was prompted by Othniel, her husband, to ask for a field; she therefore asked for an irrigation of water, and she obtained what she had requested, not only level land, but also mountainous land. For that [expression] signifies that which is according to one’s heart, a desirable thing. She called the mountainous [lands] “upper,” and the level [plains] “lower.”

^D INTERROGATION IV. How is it that in this place he calls the father-in-law of the lawgiver Jobab, who in the preceding histories is called Jethro and Reuel? I have already said that Jobab was the son of that man; he called him father-in-law as being the brother of his wife. For even now, many call such persons fathers-in-law. Therefore, the children of Jobab are the grandchildren of Jethro.

QUESTION V.

QUESTION VI.

The divine Scripture often mentions Rechab as a very pious man, and indicates that his piety extended to his descendants. It says that he advised the tribe of Judah to leave the valley and dwell in the mountain. He himself was also of the tribe of Judah, as the book of Chronicles teaches. I believe he advised them to flee the valley because of the impiety of the inhabitants of the surrounding regions, and also because of the proximity of the sea. For those who live near the sea receive those who sail from afar, and they themselves desire to engage in navigation; and interaction with foreigners corrupted the legal way of life. ^C

QUESTION VII.

First, they did not conquer the whole land because of their sluggishness; then, also because of greed: “For he subjected the Canaanite to tribute,” he says, “and he did not utterly destroy him.” And the author said this of every tribe. Moreover, having transgressed the divine law and served the gods of the foreigners, they were deprived of divine providence. For which reason the all-wise Lord did not utterly destroy the race of the Canaanite nations, but allowed many to dwell near them, so that, being warred upon and forced into servitude, they might perceive the damage resulting from ^D their error, and might flee to...

^A the Savior God, and enjoy assistance from Him. And that I do not say these things using human reasoning, but instructed by history itself, I shall immediately reveal. For it says: "And the angel of the Lord went up from Galgal to the place of weeping, and to Bethel, and to the house of Israel from Galgal." Now the place of the uncircumcised was also called Galgal. In the Hebrew tongue, the name signifies "freedom." From there He sends the angel, reminding them of the crossing of the river and the circumcision that took place. Then He recounts what was said by the angel: "The Lord brought you up from Egypt, and brought you into the land which He swore to your fathers to give you; and He said to you, I will not break my covenant with you forever. And you shall not make a covenant with those who dwell in this land, and you shall not worship their gods, but you shall break their graven images, and tear down their altars. But you did not hearken to my voice, ^B when you did this. And I, He says, will no longer remove this people whom I said I would drive out from before your face; but they shall be for you a snare, and their gods shall be a stumbling block to you. You have transgressed my law, He says, nor have you kept my commandments; you have made peace with the masters of iniquity, and you have served their gods. Enjoy, therefore, what you sought, and reap the sheaves of your seeds. For they who escaped the death of war shall not cease to make war upon you, and their gods shall enslave your souls." When these things were spoken by the angel, the people mourned; whence the place was also called the place of weeping. From this, I concluded that the greater part of what was said was a summary recapitulation of the deeds under Joshua. For the author says: ^C "And Joshua dismissed the people, and the children of Israel departed, each to his own place and his own inheritance to possess the land. And the people served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders who lived for a long time after Joshua, who knew every great work which the Lord performed in Israel." He also recounts how many years old he was when he died, and where he was buried. And he added that another generation arose after them, who did not know the Lord, nor the work which He performed in Israel; who, even while associating with the Canaanites, Pherezites, and the rest of the foreigners, contracted marriages with them, and through these marriages became ^D partners in impiety. For they served Baa-

lim and Astaroth. From this we learn how much the piety of rulers benefits their subjects, and how much is lost by the lack of a ruler, or conversely, by being under the rule of wicked princes. For this current history also teaches us this: "For the Lord raised up judges for them," he says, "and saved them from the hand of those who were plundering ^A them." And when he raised up judges for them, the Lord was with the judge, and saved them from the hand of their enemies "all the days of the judge." And a little later: "And it came to pass when the judge died, they turned back and became worse than their fathers, so as to follow other gods, to serve them and to worship them."

I think that there is also another reason why they did not obtain the entire promised land, which is as follows. The observance of the legal polity required a very small territory, because the law commanded all to celebrate three times a year by gathering into one place, where they had built the divine temple. There, indeed, he commanded them to bring the first fruits, and the tithes, and the firstborn of the flocks, and the other sacrifices. Reasonably, therefore, he confined them to a small space, so that even the slothful could easily gather at the consecrated temple. ^B

INTERR. VIII.

"How is this passage to be understood: 'These are the nations that Joshua left, to test Israel through them, all who had not known the wars of Chanaan; but because of the generations of the children of Israel, to teach them war; those who had been before them did not know them'?"

When war was waged with Joshua son of Nun as leader, the people conquered not by being instructed in the art of war, but by relying on help from above: "For I will send," he said, "the hornets before you, and it will destroy the Canaanite and the Hittite," and so on. And indeed, sending lightning from above, and hail equal in size to stones, he consumed the adversaries. He says, therefore, that for this reason Joshua son of Nun did not utterly destroy all who inhabited that land, so that his descendants might learn by experience ^C of God’s providence, and being compelled by the necessity of war, might call upon the Master for ^D his alliance. But for "to test," Symmachus...

says that he wished to exercise them, and to teach them the art of war. Now, the term "to test," as it stands in the Septuagint, does not denote that God is ignorant. For He did not even test Abraham for that reason, that He might come to know the mind of Abraham. For there, too, He taught that God knew that Abraham would instruct his sons and his house ^A after him to keep all the judgments of the Lord God. He does not test, then, so that He himself might learn, but so that He might teach those who are ignorant. Just as, therefore, He had given the commandment to Adam for the exercise of his rational faculty, so in this place He has left some of the nations, that the piety of some might be made manifest, and the impiety of others might be convicted. For this is what it says: "To test Israel by them, to know if they would obey the commandments which He commanded their fathers by the hand of Moses." Indeed, the facts themselves teach that they were the cause of not being entirely delivered from those impious nations. For Joshua, with his host, although he lacked a city, and ramparts, and did not have soldiers trained in the art of war, struck down twenty-nine kings, not counting the leaders of Jericho and Ai. Those, however, who lived after him, although they abounded in fortified cities, and had amassed most abundant wealth from the spoils, and were protected by every kind of armor and by walls and trenches, yet because of their own impiety were unable to overcome the remnants of the nations. ^B

INTERROGATION IX.

It is probable that Jephone was known by two names, and was also called Kenez. It is also probable that they-while being of one mother-had different fathers; and that Caleb’s father was indeed Jephone, but after his death, his mother married Kenez and gave birth to Othoniel. That he called Jericho the "city of palms" is made clear by the accounts of Eglon. "For he went," it says, "Eglon, and struck the children of Israel, and took possession of the city of palms." And a little later: "And Eglon returned from the idols that were in Galgala. And Ehud said to Eglon..." ^D

^A : 'I have a secret word for you, O king.'" Now Galgala was not far distant from Jericho. He called the iron of the sword "a flame," and the handle "a paraxiphide." For this is what he implies: "And he took his sword from his right thigh, and thrust it into the belly of Eglon, and thrust the handle in after the flame, and the fat closed over the handle."

QUESTION X.

He was one person, and this is another; they were of the same name and held the same kingdom. It is likely that this one was his son. For you may find many who have obtained the names of their fathers; for ^B instance, the firstborn son of the Emperor Constantine was named Constantine.

QUESTION XI.

It is not alien to likelihood that that city was destroyed at that time, and afterward rebuilt. However, although in this place he makes mention of the city of Asor, he does not assert that he himself dwelt in it, but in the city of Aseroth. Note must also be taken that he calls the descendants of Jothor, the Kenites.

QUESTION XII.

Because the nature of men and women is the same. For woman was fashioned from Adam, and participated in reason just as he did. Wherefore the Apostle also says: "In Christ Jesus there is no male and female." Thus Moses also was a prophet, and Miriam a prophetess. I believe that Deborah also was deemed worthy of the gift of prophecy as a reproach to the men of that time. For since no one among them was found worthy to merit the grace, she obtained the gift of the most Holy Spirit; and it was so clearly manifest that she had obtained the grace from above, that Barak would not dare go forth into battle without her. She says this also in her own canticle: ^D "The rulers in Israel ceased, until arose..."

Deborah, a mother in Israel." ^A She declares also the impiety of her own tribesmen: "They chose new gods as barley bread." She refutes their utter senselessness by this comparison. For just as one is not considered to be in possession of his faculties if he prefers barley loaves to wheaten, so is he stupefied beyond measure who prefers false gods to the true God. She makes clear, however, the confidence of her soul: "If I see," she says, "forty thousand of spearmen, nevertheless my heart is set upon the things which are ordained [for] Israel." The divine law confirmed this: "If, indeed," it says, "you see a multitude of enemies, and horses, and chariots, do not fear, for the Lord your God will fight for you." She commands not only the poor, but also those who take great pride in their wealth, to praise God. "For you mighty ones of the people," she says, "bless the Lord, ^B you who ride upon beasts, who sit upon gleaming vehicles; and utter a voice of those striking [the strings] in the midst of those who rejoice. There they shall give righteousness to God." Furthermore, *mosphatem* is interpreted as "fields," and *madaroth* as "blindness." And "to curse *mazor*" is to curse "the mighty one." We learn from the history the way in which the Lord God, using paternal affection, would deliver the sinning people to foreigners, using them as a kind of rod and scourge: and in turn, being led to repentance, He would have mercy and succor them in every way. Accordingly, immediately after the benefit received through the ministry of Deborah, upon their falling into impiety, He delivered them to the Midianites. ^C Then, after that chastisement, He deemed them worthy of His aid, having first rebuked their impiety through a certain prophet. He reminded them again of the benefits that they had enjoyed; then, through a certain angel, He strengthened Gideon and ordered him to marshal his battle line against the enemy.

^A QUES. XIII.

What is meant by: "Go in this thy strength, and thou shalt save Israel from the hand of Midian"?

QUES. XIV. Why did God command the calf that was being reared for Baal to be offered to Him?

QUES. XV. Of what is the fleece that received the dew a symbol?

INTERR. XVI. Why did He order only those to descend into battle who had drunk in the manner of a dog?

^A The Lord God Himself explained the reason: "The people with you are too many," He says, "for Me to deliver Midian into their hands, lest Israel boast against Me, saying: 'My own hand has saved me.'" ^B Therefore, when the greater part had been dismissed, He ordered those who remained to be led to the river; and when the majority knelt down and drank quickly, but the three hundred, through laziness (not doing this, but lifting the water to their mouths with their hands), only these did He order—as sluggish and slow—to rush against the adversaries, so that the divine support might be evident to all. In this same way, through twelve fishermen, tax collectors, and one tanner, He routed the army of demons and saved human nature. For this reason the prophet Isaiah compared those things with these, and said: "For the rod of the faithless the Lord has shattered, as in the day of Midian." For just as in this place He used naked soldiers, carrying in their left hands lamps hidden in jars, and in their right hands trumpets, so He sent forth the holy apostles stripped [of worldly gear] throughout the entire earth, carrying the lamp of miracles and the trumpet of proclamations.

INTERR. XVII. What is the meaning of: "Gideon made it into an ephod, and he set it up in his city, Ophrah"?

What was done was, indeed, against the law. For it was permitted only to the priests to use an ephod, since through it what needed to be done was revealed. ^C Gedeon’s intention, however, did not incline toward impiety; but because he was prince and leader of the army, he wished to learn through the ephod what course of action he should take. Yet for the people, it became a source of the contagion of iniquity: "For all Israel," he says, "went whoring after it there; and it became a snare to Gedeon and to his house." The ephod, however, is interpreted in Exodus as a "superhumerale" (shoulder-piece), to which the breastplate was attached; through it, future victory in war was signified. This is known more clearly from the history of the Books of Kings. For when the foreigners had gathered an army, Saul commanded the priest to bring the ephod; ^D then, when he knew the enemies were in turmoil and that victory was declared, he said: "Bring the ephod." It is therefore clear that

^A it was a certain texture which was placed around the priests, signaling what ought to be done. Aquila, however, called it a super-garment. Moreover, from what befell Abimelech and the Shechemites, we learn that a wicked conspiracy brings ruin to those who use it, and ends in dissension. For those who had killed the sons of Gideon together perished by mutual blows.

INTERROGATION XVIII

INTERROGATION XIX

^A nonetheless the dialect has much diversity. Thus, the Hebrews were indeed the twelve tribes, and they had, as is likely, certain idioms, just as this one surely did. For as the Syrian says, while others call an ear of corn *embla*, those of Ephraim, through a certain custom, said *embelo*. Knowing this well, Jephthah ordered them to pronounce it, and those who were convicted he slew. ^B

INTERR. XX. Why did the Lord God permit the daughter of Jephthah to be slaughtered?

Jephthah’s vow was excessively foolish. For he ought to have observed that it was possible for a dog or an donkey to be the first to meet him—animals which are nevertheless unclean according to the Law. The Lord God, therefore, instructing others through him to utter their promises prudently and discreetly, did not restrain this slaughter. That He condemns such victims, however, the blessed David is witness, crying out: "They sacrificed their sons and their daughters to demons, and shed innocent blood, the blood of their sons and their daughters, whom they sacrificed to the idols of Canaan; and the land was polluted with blood," and what follows. And the Lord God Himself also says through Ezekiel the prophet: "You took your sons and your daughters, whom you bore to me, and you offered them to your lovers; this is beyond all your whoredom." And indicating the excess of that impiety, He added: "Which I did not conceive, nor did it come into my heart." Moreover, when He wished to exercise Abraham’s love for God, He commanded him to sacrifice his son; but when He had demonstrated the righteous man’s mind, He forbade the slaughter to take place. ^C The rest of the account declares Jephthah’s own imperfection. For having promised to offer in sacrifice whatever first met him, when he saw his daughter do this, he tore his garment, and wept bitterly; and having first granted her time to mourn, he then sacrificed her. But the daughter was much better than he: "For if," she says, "you have opened your mouth to the Lord concerning me, do to me according to that which has gone out of your mouth, forasmuch as the Lord has brought upon you vengeance on your enemies, the children of Ammon." Therefore, the Lord God, teaching how promises to Him must be made, did not restrain the slaughter. ^D After this, the history teaches us about the angels

^A regarding their benevolence toward God. For when Manoah desired to offer a kid to him, the divine angel said: "If you compel me, I will not eat of your bread. And if you offer a whole burnt offering, you will offer it to the Lord." "I have no need of food," he says; "I do not accept sacrifice." For the former is proper to God, the latter is proper to human nature. I, however, neither require food like a man, nor do I snatch the honor owed to God. From this it is clear that they who were entertained by Abraham consumed the food set before them in some other way. (Thus far the version of John Pico; thereafter, that of Gentian Hervet.)

^B INTERR. XXI. How did Samson, living dissolutely and flagitiously, obtain spiritual grace? It is clear from this that the Lord, for some other reason of dispensation, imparts a divine gift even to the unworthy. The Savior also signified this in the holy Gospels: "For many," He says, "will come in that day and will say to me, 'Lord, Lord, did we not prophesy in your name, and in your name perform many mighty works?' And I will say to them, 'Depart from me, you who work iniquity; I do not know who you are.'" The Lord God has done this here as well. For, wishing to crush the power of the strangers, He bestowed upon him strength and power through spiritual grace. ^C It is for this reason that He even allowed him to marry a woman of a foreign race. And the history also teaches this, saying: "And his father and his mother did not know that it was from the Lord, that he was seeking a retribution from the strangers." But the phrase, "It is from the Lord," does not signify a divine action, but a concession.

INTERR. XXII. Why, when he was a Nazirite and lived under the Law, did he eat the honeycomb that had been prepared in the mouth of the lion, and a dead one at that? This also signifies that the necessity of such laws is not for all. For none of those who [have transgressed such laws...]

were punished. But if one supposes that Samson had done this, as someone who had not been an exact and diligent observer of the Law, let him consider again that God gave to him when he was thirsty a fountain, having commanded it to gush forth from the hollow of the ass's jawbone. Now, according to the Law, this possessed a triple uncleanness: for the living ass is unclean, and the dead one is again unclean, and the instrument that had become a weapon of slaughter and had slain a thousand of the aliens had contracted another uncleanness. Nevertheless, the Lawgiver provided him the use of water from it, and from nowhere else.

But this very man, unconquered and impregnable, who was recently the terror of many thousands of the aliens, a harlot woman brought into captivity; so much more grievous than battle array in war is the war of desire. For pleasure made captive him who had behaved so bravely and was celebrated with praises for his brilliant and admirable deeds. For she stripped him of divine grace: "For he was awakened," it says, "Samson from his sleep, and said: I will go out and do as I have always done, and I will shake myself off. And he did not know that the Lord had departed from him." ^B Yet the kind and merciful God did not utterly abandon him; but when He saw him being treated with insults and outrages, He had pity, and hearkened to his prayer, and supplied him with such strength as to shake the columns that held up the temple of the idols, and to cast down the roof together with them, and to bury three thousand men, and a much greater number of women.

22 INTERR. XXIII. Whence did Samson hunt so many foxes?

There is a mountain among them that feeds many foxes; and history teaches this: "For the Amorite," it says, "began to dwell in the mountain of Myrtetus, where there are bears and foxes." ^C

INTERR. XXIV. What is, "Micha made an ephod and teraphim"?

Concerning the ephod, I have spoken many times, and that it was a priestly vestment, and through it God manifested what was to be done. Now the teraphim…

were something of that sort, dedicated to idols, not to God. For the history teaches this here as well: "For he made, it says, a graven and molten image." Then it adds: "And Micah made an ephod and teraphim, and he filled the hand of one of his sons, and he became a priest to him." Now he was not of the Levitical tribe, but from that of Ephraim. And it taught also the cause of the transgression of the law: "For in those days, it says, there was no king in Israel; every man did what was pleasing in his own eyes." Such great evils does the lack of a ruler or magistrate cause. ^A

INTERROGATION XXV.

The things that follow have great ambiguity: "For there was, it says, a young man from Bethlehem of the tribe of Judah, from the kindred of Judah, and he was a Levite and was dwelling there." If a Levite, how from the kindred of Judah? It called Bethlehem the "tribe of Judah"; but, as I surmise, it also called the village itself the "kindred of Judah." We have said that God did not allot a specific portion to the priests and Levites, but dispersed them through all the tribes, that all might have teachers of piety. Therefore, this man too, being a Levite, dwelt in Bethlehem, which was of the tribe and kindred of Judah. If, however, anyone considers this interpretation forced, let him remember what has already been said by us, that the two tribes, the royal and the priestly, were mingled with one another. It is probable that this man was a Levite on his father's side, but had a mother from the tribe of Judah. ^B Yet the man’s lawlessness was manifold. First, because while God had pitched the tabernacle in Silo, he performed his office in another place contrary to the divine law. Then, he offered sacrifices to handmade idols (for this is what "graven and molten" signifies). Furthermore, he dared another transgression in addition to these. For the law forbade the Levites from acting as priests, but commanded them to serve the priests. He therefore transgressed this law as well by daring to act as a priest. He was also ungrateful toward him who had extended kindness; for having received the instruments of the fraud, he followed those who were of the tribe of Dan, and became the facilitator of the error in the adoration of idols. ^C

INTERROGATION XXVI.

What is: "It was in the valley of the house of Rechab"? Near that city, as is likely, the Rechabite ^D

^A house was dwelling. Now, this place was formerly called Laisa, but having been stormed by these men, its name was changed to Dan; now it is called Paneas. Here, indeed, we have clearly learned the lineage of this Levite. For "Jonathan," he says, "the son of Manasseh, the son of Gersom, the son of Moses," he and his sons were priests to the tribe of Dan until the transmigration of the land. "And Micah set up for them the graven image which he had made, for all the days that the house of God was in Silo." ^B Therefore, they sacrificed lawlessly, not only by worshipping idols, but also by daring to fulfill the priestly office. For they were Levites, not priests; for the Lord God commanded only the race of Aaron to act as priests. And I think that because the lawgiver had taken an alien woman as his wife, he ordered those born from him to be enrolled among the Levites, and not as priests, so that the priestly dignity would not be insulted by having its lineage reproached. For if his brother and sister cast this reproach upon the lawgiver, what would they not have dared who were more prone to sedition and tyranny? ^C For those who were insolent against Aaron, who married a maiden who had sprung from the royal tribe, what would they not have done against the children of Moses, who had taken the daughter of a Midianite and priest of idols?

INTERR. XXVII.

Because they were using similar iniquities, and while they saw the unchastity and flagrant crimes of others, they did not look at their own. This also the divine Apostle said: "For in what you judge another, ^D you condemn yourself, for you who judge do the same things." And again: "Do you think this, O man, who judge those who do such things, and do them yourself, that you will escape the judgment of God? Or do you despise the riches of his kindness and patience and long-suffering, not knowing that the goodness of God leads you to repentance? But according to your hardness and impenitent heart, you are storing up for yourself wrath in the day of wrath and revelation of the righteous judgment of God, who will render to each according to his works." This also happened to these men. For moved by a just wrath against those who behaved wickedly in Gabaon, they armed four hundred thousand men. But God, wishing to chasten them, as those who were doing similar things, and discerning the evil in others while unwilling to do so in themselves, permitted them to be defeated once and twice, and many thousands of them to be killed. But after He saw that they had also accepted discipline,

to be defeated and to shed many thousands of them. And since he saw that they had accepted the correction and were mourning and shedding many tears, he helped their eagerness, and utterly destroyed the lawless tribe, except for a very small and easily counted number. For those who risked danger on their behalf were even worse than the profligate. For when their fellow tribesmen demanded those who had dared to commit the iniquity, they not only did not hand them over, but even willingly defended them. ^B On account of which they underwent a common destruction. And I believe this war happened before the other wars, not long after the death of Joshua. For "Phineas," it says, "the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, stood before the ark in those days." And Eleazar received the end of his life immediately after Joshua; and Phineas succeeded to the priesthood. And the end of the book of Joshua, the son of Nave, taught us this. I believe, therefore, that he who wrote this history did not arrange the first events as the last without purpose. For he wished to show us first the successions of the Judges, and who was the first, who the second, and who the third to lead, and ^C then to place these two narratives, namely, that concerning Micah and the one concerning Laisa, and that concerning the little woman whom the insane lewdness of the profligate destroyed.

INTERR. XXVIII. Why did the children of Israel command those two hundred who were of the tribe of Benjamin to seize from the virgins dancing in Silo and marry them? All the women of their tribe had been slaughtered. And they themselves had sworn not to betroth their own daughters to them. In order, therefore, that they might not be forced by necessity to take foreign women, they found a way in their straits and devised the abduction.

IN RUTH

^D INTERROGATIO I. Why was the narrative of Ruth written? RESPONSIO. First of all, on account of Christ the Lord. For from her...

^A he blossomed according to the flesh. For this reason the divine Matthew, in writing the genealogy, left aside the women celebrated for their virtue, such as Sarah and Rebecca and the others, but made mention of Thamar, and of Rahab, and of Ruth; and indeed also of the wife of Uriah, teaching that the only-begotten Son of God became man for the sake of all men, both Jews and other nations, sinners and righteous. For Ruth was a Moabitess, and Bathsheba was unlawfully joined to the king. Rahab was a harlot, but she obtained salvation through faith; and Thamar too is brightened by this same quality. For it was not because of incontinence that she shared herself with her father-in-law; but seeing that he did not wish to join a son to her, she stole the cohabitation in order to bring forth the blessing. And immediately after this offspring, she accepted no other seed, but loved virginity. One may see also in Ruth how, because of her piety and religion, she left her parents and followed her mother-in-law. For Ruth said, as it is written: “Far be it from me to leave you, or to turn back from following you; for wherever you go, I will go, and where you lodge, I will lodge; your people shall be my people, and your God my God; and wherever you die, I will die, and there I will be buried. May the Lord do so to me and more also, if anything but death separates me from you.” ^C And she said these things having been urged many times by her mother-in-law to return to her parents. “Return,” she said, “my daughters, and why do you go with me? Do I still have sons in my womb to be husbands for you? Return, my daughters, for I am grown old, so as not to be with a husband, and because I said, ‘I no longer have the strength to be with a husband.’ And if I were to bear sons, will you wait for them until they grow to manhood, or will you be restrained for their sake from not being with a husband? No, my daughters; for I am more sorely pressed than you, because the hand of the Lord has gone forth against me.” Neither, she says, am I pregnant, that you might wait to be joined to those I am about to bear, nor am I able to marry a husband because of my old age, so that you might wait for my wedding, and the procreation of sons, and their upbringing; for I have received a blow sent from God. It was necessary

to write down the story of Ruth also for the sake of the Master, yet this history is sufficient in itself to offer every kind of benefit to those who know how to profit from such things. For it teaches us ^A both of the heavy calamities of Noemi, and of her commendable perseverance, and of the temperance of her daughters-in-law, and of their affection for their mother-in-law; and especially that of Ruth, who preferred an aged and toil-worn woman to her own parents because of the piety of her intention and the memory of her husband. It also taught us the virtue of Booz. For he not only generously shared the harvest with Ruth ^B, but he also comforted her with words. "Do not go, daughter," he said, "into another field to glean, but stay here with my maidens." And after ordering her also to eat and drink with the harvesters, he added: "It has been reported to me all that you have done for your mother-in-law after the death of your husband, and how you left your father and your mother and the land of your birth, and came to a people whom you did not know yesterday or the day before. May the Lord repay your work, and may your reward be full from the Lord God of Israel, to whom you came to take refuge under His wings." And this blessing obtained its end. For she received a full reward from the Lord, having become the ancestress of the blessing ^C of the nations. And he not only shared food with her, but he himself became the minister of the service; not commanding another to serve, but he himself prepared the flour and brought the bread most generously. For, having been satisfied, she carried what remained to her mother-in-law. Then the relative, with a grateful heart, rewarded the absent benefactor with blessings. For she said, "Blessed is he who acknowledged you, since he satisfied a hungry soul, just as he did according to what he did." For she says, "He did not look to your poverty, but to the Legislator, who commanded that the utmost care be taken of widows."

INTERR. II

is a kinsman to us, she recalled his great kindness, and thought that Booz, being a relative of her husband, would wish to be joined to her according to the law, so that he might preserve the memory of the deceased. This is what the following words signify. For she says that Ruth said to her mother-in-law: and as to what she said, "Join yourself to my young women, until they have finished all the harvest that we have," having heard these words, Noemi suggests to her that she should sleep at the feet of Booz, not that she should sell her beauty—for the steps of the suggestion signify the opposite. "For you shall come," she says, "and reveal ^A the parts by his feet, and you shall sleep, and he himself will tell you what you shall do." So much did she trust in the man's temperance and justice. But the actions themselves confirmed the words. For according to the instructions of her mother-in-law, while all were overcome by sleep, Ruth lay down by the feet of Booz. And he asked who she might be; and she reminded him of the kinship of the deceased. But he praised what had been done, yet did not betray his temperance, but preserved the nuptial union according to the law. "For you are blessed," he said, "by the Lord God, my daughter, because you have made your last kindness better than the first, in not going after young men, whether poor or rich ^B (61). You have shown," he says, "by what you have done, that you did not do this in slavery to desire. For otherwise you would have gone to those who are in the bloom of their youth, regarding neither wealth nor poverty, but only the enjoyment of pleasure. But you have come to a man who holds for you the place of a father." For this is what the word "daughter" signifies (and he called her so twice ^C (62)). "And now, daughter, fear not; all that you say I will do for you. For all the tribe of my people knows that you are a woman of excellence, and that I truly am a kinsman ^D (63)." No one, he says, will blame me; for you are praised by all, and I, because of the kinship, and not because of licentiousness, will perform the marriage. But since there is another kinsman more closely related, it is necessary for me to speak with him first, so that if he should wish, he may marry you according to the law; but if not, I will then place upon you the matrimonial yoke. Such was the virtue of the man, that when a beautiful young girl had come to him by night, he preserved his temperance, and willed that the matter be transacted according to the law, and did not hasten to the marriage contrary to the law; but as he spoke with the nearer kinsman regarding the marriage, then since he refused

the marriage, only then was he wedded to the praiseworthy woman. ^A Yet his steps toward that man were also worthy of admiration. For he did not first bring up the matters concerning marriage to him, but discussed the acquisition of the fields. Then, once he had gladly accepted the contract, he added the discourse concerning the marriage, having stated that it was just for the one who acquires the fields of the deceased also to marry the woman and to preserve the memory of the departed through the procreation of children. Since, however, that man refused the contract because of the marriage and the fields, he loosed his shoe according to the law and gave it, and Booz took Ruth as his wife. ^B That he did not undertake to marry as a slave to pleasure is shown also by his commendable words. "For Booz said," it is written, "to the elders and all the people: You are witnesses today that I have acquired all that belonged to Abimelech, and all that belonged to Maalon and to Cheleon, from the hand of Noemi; and I have acquired for myself as wife Ruth the Moabitess, the wife of Maalon, to raise up the name of the deceased upon his inheritance, and the name of the deceased shall not be blotted out from his brothers and from his tribe." The piety and precision of what was said are worthy of admiration. For he says, I do not transgress the law by taking a Moabitess as a wife, but I am fulfilling the divine law, striving that the memory of the deceased be preserved unextinguished. ^C The elders also confirmed the marriage with their blessing. They spoke thus: "May the Lord give the woman who is coming into your house as Rachel and Lia, who both built the house of Israel, and may she behave with virtue in Ephratha; and may there be a name in Bethlehem famous among all men. And may your house be like the house of Phares, whom Thamar bore to Juda, and may the Lord give you from the seed of this maiden." These words of blessing hint that he also had another wife. For this reason they remembered both Rachel and Lia at the same time, and added, "Who both built the house of Israel." The phrase, "And may she behave with virtue in Ephratha, and may there be a name in Bethlehem famous among all men," ^D foretells the salvific birth, through which Bethlehem has become famous among all men. They made mention of Thamar, because she too, although she was a foreigner, bore Phares, from whom King David traces his lineage, and David's grandson and lord, son and Master. From her was born Obed, the father of Jesse, who begot David. When the women brought this infant to Noemi, they said: "Blessed be the Lord,