army into squads and assign to each troop its own duty, so that they may not all fight from one side and easily grow weary of the siege. A Let the general, with the greater part of the army, make attacks without intermission, both night and day, in succession, and especially at night, at which time incursions seem far more terrifying to the besieged; and furthermore, because the enemy, having no time for rest due to the continuous attacks and being worn out by both labors and lack of sleep, would more easily surrender both the city and themselves. It is best in a siege to apply all kinds of machines simultaneously; let therefore the archers and javelin-throwers shower a storm of missiles upon those guarding the battlements, let the rams strike the walls, and let those in the tortoise sheds likewise burrow away at the foundations; let ladders also be brought up, placed upon upright beams and moved toward the walls by means of wheels, and let those in the wooden towers likewise approach the walls upon rollers and shoot from a superior height. Let the rams and wooden towers be covered with the fresh hides of oxen; and let the tortoise sheds be smeared with mud on top and wrapped on the outside with sponges soaked in vinegar; for vinegar extinguishes the force of fire, especially of that which is called liquid, and molten lead, pitch, or boiling oil, much better than water when poured on. B Let it also be commanded to all archers, javelin-throwers, and stone-throwers to shoot fire, through the arrows or stones being sent, into the houses of the enemy, while taking care for the strongest winds. Through these mentioned stratagems, the enemy, being shaken by fear in their souls and having despaired of their whole situation, will either at long last surrender the city and themselves, or against their will will depart from the battlements. Once the city has been taken by the law of war, the general must announce to all soldiers through messengers, in the language of the enemy, not to kill any of the citizens who are unarmed, unless someone should be armed and carrying a sword; for upon hearing this announcement, every enemy will lay down their arms—having willingly accepted servitude—and thus the city, with the warriors yielding, will be captured without danger.
CAP. LV. — How one may quickly construct a fortress situated near the borders of the enemy without the danger of a public war.
First of all, the general himself ought to investigate the position of the terrain and select the most fortified place, and where it is possible that, within twelve days at most, a space sufficient for the purpose may first be enclosed with dry stones, or bricks, or wood; then, having provided all things necessary, before all else the armed infantry ought to lead the enemy into error, by having a certain part of the army set out, as if it had the intention of building a fortress elsewhere; while the general meanwhile ought to
A occupy the aforementioned sites unexpectedly, and then begin the construction of the fortress. First of all, he should post worthy scouts in the most opportune places (the Romans call these "vigils"), then dig a trench in a single day and immediately occupy it with infantry, and thus begin the construction and immediately raise a tower or some other bulwark against sudden raids. After that, he should build the rest of the perimeter with dry stones, as we said, or if there is a shortage of material, with bricks or wood. If there is no water in the fortress, a wooden cistern must be made immediately, with its joints sealed with asphalt and pitch. Its length should be at most twenty feet, its width ten, and its depth equal to its width, or adjusted according to the size of the army. In order that the water does not become foul from standing still, a small wooden vessel should be used, which receives the flowing water and, when it is full, empties it into the aforementioned wooden cistern. Vinegar is also useful for water beginning to smell, if poured into it; river pebbles thrown in also dissipate the odor of such waters. Once the fortress has been completed, if the general learns that the enemies are advancing against it, he should withdraw from there beforehand with his cavalry, after having left a sufficient garrison in the fortress. He should, however, keep far enough away from the enemies so as not to provoke them clearly to an open battle by his proximity, and yet not so far that, due to excessive distance, he can no longer assist those in danger or see everything pertaining to the siege. The most suitable time for building such fortresses would be especially during the month of Panemus, Loüs, and Gorpiaeus, which the Romans call July, August, and September; for the grass, being dry at that time, is easily delivered to the flame, and from this the enemy’s cavalry, being pressed, would most quickly depart from the siege. Once it has been lifted, then indeed let the general build the fortress with ample material, and let him fortify it with very many machines, arms, an abundance of food, and all other things, as time and resources obviously allow. B C
THE ORACLES OF EMPEROR LEO, SURNAMED THE WISE
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND AN ANCIENT GREEK PARAPHRASE.
PETER LAMBECIUS TO THE READER.
Lest anything at all should be missing from the body of Byzantine History, I have deemed it necessary to insert into it the Oracles of Emperor Leo, surnamed the Wise, containing prophetic pictures by which, as is commonly held, the future events of the Constantinopolitan empire are foretold. The first man to bring them to light in Greek and Latin was Janus Rutgersius in his *Variarum Lectionum*, book V, chapter 8. Four years ago, while I was staying in Batavia, I collated this edition with an ancient manuscript codex of the Amsterdam Library, which he had not seen; and from it, I extracted not a few variant readings of quite great importance, which you will find in my annotations. Furthermore, in the same codex, I found the Greek Paraphrase of an anonymous author for the Oracles of Leo, which I have deemed should be published together with them because of the similarity of the subject matter. But it is not yet sufficiently clear to me whether this is the same as that *Exposition of the Oracles of Leo* by Theophilus the Presbyter, which is said to be preserved in the Vatican library. In the remaining part, kind reader, take this labor of mine in good part; if it seems to you less than accurate, may you at least forgive me for that reason, because it was produced under my hand in the space of barely three full days while on a journey. Farewell. Lutetia Parisiorum [Paris], 1650, on the 20th day of September.
TESTIMONIA OF ANCIENT AUTHORS CONCERNING EMPEROR LEO, SURNAMED THE WISE, AND HIS ORACLES.
*Zonaras, page 143, Basel edition.*
A Verum imperator suscipiendæ prolis avidus, præsertim cum id a vatibus ei prædictum esset. Fuit enim doctrinarum omnis generis amator, et arcanæ quoque illius, quæ per incantationes futura divinat: versatus etiam in doctrina de motibus siderum eorumque effectibus, in qua inveniebat, se filium habiturum imperii successorem, etc.
*Idem, page 145.*
Ne te decipiat nomen, Constantine, tuum, nec putaris, eo quod Constantinus Romanis imperaturus sit, te imperio potiturum. Certo enim scito, filium hunc meum, illum esse. Quod si tu Spartam tuam ornaris, bene tibi erit. Sin rebus novis studueris, et tyrannidem affectaris; noli dubitare, quin per hanc portam (demonstrata Occidentali au-
- A the door of the triclinium) your head will pass without the rest of your body." This is what happened later, according to the prophecy of Emperor Leo.
The same, where he deals with the omens of the death of Leo the Armenian.
It is also said that there was a book in the royal library in which oracles concerning the emperors were contained, and the forms of both men and wild beasts were expressed; and among others, a wild lion was also painted there, with the letter X inscribed on its back: behind the beast stood a man, who was piercing the lion through the middle of the X. And the book contained these things, which were thought to be Sibylline oracles. The obscure covering of that painting is said to have been explained by the quaestor of that time, and he said that the emperor would be killed on the day of the Nativity of Christ: and that the wild beast signified the emperor, but the X the aforementioned day of the Nativity of Christ: and that because the lion was being pierced through the middle of the X, it portended that the emperor would be killed on the very day of the Nativity of Christ.
The same, where he deals with the death of Michael Balbus.
Under him (namely, Emperor Michael) Dalmatia also shook off the yoke of the empire, and they say this was predicted by this ancient oracle:
When Balbus shall have reigned in Babylon, The dragon subdued, love of gold having been lost, The earth shall feel the beginnings of evils.
Cedrenus, page 493, royal edition.
This was a Sibylline oracle, inscribed in a certain book of the imperial library, in which not only oracles were contained, but also figures of the emperors painted in colors B. In that book, a wild lion was depicted, etc.
Nicephorus Gregoras, Cologne Allobrogum edition, page 102.
For the emperor found an ancient book containing certain letters and enigmatic images, by which the future succession of the emperors was presignified in perpetuity.
Nicetas, book 1 on the reign of Isaac Angelos, page 229, royal edition.
Isaac Angelos always had on his lips, and falsely attributed to himself, an oracle about an emperor expressed by the figure of an ox, which is as follows:
The figure denotes the character and no less the place. Whence have you come? As I rejoice at your sight. Far excelling others in virtue You chastise your own modestly and gently. Hence you have attained a most prosperous outcome: And you draw honor alone from the palace, Power having been left to the dead in a short time: For the honor of a prosperous reign awaits you.
The same, book V on the reign of Manuel Komnenos, page 110, royal edition.
He named the boy Alexius, and that not rashly, nor so much to honor him with the name of his ancestor, as because of an oracle, by which it had been answered to him through riddles that the series of the Komnenian family would last only as many letters as the name AIMA contained. And by A, Alexius; by I, John; by M and D A...
- A tu) et Manuel and his son, the other, Alexius, were not obscurely signified.
*The Same, Concerning the Reign of John Comnenus, pp. 27 and 28, Royal Edition.*
For indeed the valley in which he had his camp, being flooded by a massive downpour, his very bed was carried away by the force of the rushing water, while that oracle, "You shall unexpectedly fall in watery places," he kept repeatedly upon his lips. Those who investigate the successions and changes of emperors say that this was also proven by the event: "Alas, you shall be food for the voracious ravens." Some think that this oracle pertains in part to the black and screeching irons with which his hand was branded, and in part to the surname of the mountains. They were called, moreover, "nests of the ravens."
*The Same, Book VI, Concerning Manuel Comnenus, son of John, p. 143, Royal Edition.*
Thus, therefore, he departed from life and empire, which he governed for thirty-eight years, minus three months, to which span of the reign that most ancient oracle seems to allude: "The last syllable of the name shall seize you; for the final syllable of the name of Manuel in Greek denotes only that number."
*Constantine Manasses, p. 110, Royal Edition.*
"When, however, the most learned of emperors, Leo, seized by a disease portending danger—having already administered the empire of the Romans for twenty-six years—perceived that death was imminent, he created his brother Alexander and his son Constantine emperors, having pronounced only this in his final breaths: 'I see also Alexander (alas, for the meager and malign time!) after thirteen months.' He wished thereby to signify that the reign of Alexander would last for so short a time, which utterance of Leo, indeed, was by no means vain. For Alexander," etc.
*John Tzetzes, Chiliads 9, verse 657.*
Concerning Oracles
"An ox shall call out, and a bull shall lament; and, Woe to you, O seven-hilled one, for you shall not reach a thousand years." This oracle was bandied about by the people of Constantinople. From this, they fashioned both calamities and fears.
A little later, however, Tzetzes explains this oracle thus:
"We indeed call the female of the oxen a cow, But we properly call the male of the oxen a bull; This bull, however, the Latins call an Italian. Our 'cow,' then, namely the city of Constantine, Which was built by the Italian Roman bulls, Shall sound the war-trumpet against the adversaries; But the 'bull,' that is the Italian, the army of the Latins, Shall grow pale with great fear, and shall lament."
A Woe to thee, seven-hilled [city], since thou shalt not reach a thousand years. Another oracle there was for the Constantinopolitans: Not in part is the adverb Woe, [a cry] of lamentation, But of two parts of speech—the *ou* of negation and the *ai* of truth. That is to say, O Constantinople, even if thou shouldst not reach a thousand years, But within a thousand years shalt be destroyed, Yet not woe and mourning for thee, but joy shall be, That thou mayest be built greater and shine more brightly.
Nicephorus Gregoras, *lib. VIII*. The next day, when the logothete had come to the emperor, no one at all knew what they had discussed; yet later, from certain indications, it was possible to conjecture that they had inspected certain prophetic books, in which some future events were set forth by an uncertain author in an obscure and enigmatic way. Then, having delineated an astrological figure by which the positions of the stars and prognostications of future events are investigated, they conjectured the arrival of enemies, the confusion of the Republic, etc.
Luitprandus, *in Legatione*. The Greeks and Saracens have books which they call *horaseis* or visions of Daniel; for my part, I have the Sibylline [books], in which it is found written how many years each emperor shall live, and what the times shall be under his reign—peace or discord, prosperity or adversity for the Saracens.
Anonymus, *in Collectaneis Antiquitatum CP*. This problem was found in the volumes of Leo the Great. It B was found in Constantinople on a marble pillar.
Concerning Andronicus, other iambic verses foretelling what was to befall him are found in books and are on the lips of many; among others, these are they:
Suddenly rising from a place full of drunkenness, A man livid, arrogant in his ways, Gloomy, hoary, a manifold chameleon, He shall fall in, and shall mow down the stalks. But yet even he, being mowed by time, Shall later pay miserable penalties, For the things which the wretch did wickedly in life. For he who carries a sword shall not escape the sword.
The wine-stained places designate Oenaeum; whence Andronicus, as has already been said, departed and arrived at Constantinople. C
ORACLES OF THE MOST WISE EMPEROR LEO
ORACLE I (icon 1)
A Blood. It hides within an irreconcilable deception, As if it were benevolent, in truth, it rears young dogs, Which it pours out as a sweet storm into the midst. But time shall refute the design. The serpent shall quickly consume all. You exult and rejoice, miserable one, And you open your hands, and twist your feet, As if leading yourself out of trouble from the outside. But the Lord shall make the hypocrisy conspicuous. For what good could you do, O you of canine appearance? Instructed by a strange biting, How will you contribute any good to life? You who have opened your mouth against birds, How shall you utter a word useful to the city? B In the midst of two ravens and winged things you shall be consumed. A second and new other beast, And a serpent flying towards the south, Stained with ink and black all over, Terrible, deprived of its eyes by the ravens. For being of a foul Oriental race, You shall miserably shake yourself together with the city, And your sighing shall tell of spring in summer. And signifying the time with linear shapes, How [the time] of the paternal [empire] shall fail, to the end. But as the destroyer from the north, O miserable snake, O how shall you become food for the wily ravens!
ORACLE II (icon 2)
Repentance. The third is double. For there is a hovering bird, A cross-bearing bird, and in turn, a horned horse.
A Of double naming, first and solitary, Counting the letters, at last in time, As you have shown to be the day of the good in time, In which you shall rule in the midst of the form of the cross. The greatest of birds and king alone, For this one, having a beginning from the south, Shall yield upon a horse, and in the splendor of the day, When the star of the day attains the meridian of the pole. O how very vehement, how bold and shaggy, Having for a beginning the unit and the end.
ORACLE III (icon 3)
Monarchy. And you are most bold and swift, And ready for battles, O race of Byzas. But the last part of your name snatches you away. In damp places and beyond hope you shall fall. For in you is the beginning and the end, the horn. You have ears obsessed by words, And you neigh with your mouth, as if a fugitive from reins.ORACLE IV (icon 4)
Exaltation. See then again and in a truly strange manner, A sickle and a rose which he bears. O sickle-bearer, I assign to you four months. But the sword shall consume all the first-fruits of the crops; You shall build temples of idols for a short time, But when you have lived three times three years as an old man, You shall be dragged to Hades, leaving two in the midst.B
NOTES
[Regarding the interpretation of these oracles, it is noted:] For the preceding oracle, which is inscribed AIMA, it was portended that only that family would hold the empire for as many letters as the name AIMA contained. For by A, Alexius; by I, Joannes; by M, and another A, Manuel and his son, the other Alexius, were signified. Thus, in this way, that family had the beginning and the end as unity, namely the A. See the passage of Nicetas in book V, concerning the empire of Manuel Comnenus, which I have inserted in full among the testimonies of ancient authors concerning Leo and his Oracles. C And so this oracle also pertains to the Comnenian family. Nicetas confirms this in book VII, where he says that Manuel Comnenus died in the thirty-eighth year of his age, and that this had been predicted by the verse of a very ancient oracle: "But the last syllable of your name shall snatch you away." For HA, the last syllable of the name MANOYHA, signifies the thirty-eighth number. The verse, moreover, which Nicetas cites, is one of those concerning which this fourth oracle is composed. D Item, the verse which follows: "In damp places and beyond hope you shall fall," is referred by the same Nicetas to the emperor John Comnenus. "O race of Byzas," i.e., originating from Byzantium. It is believed that Byzas was the name of a Thracian nymph, by whom they report that Byzantium was nurtured, according to Hesychius and Codinus. Regarding the sickle-bearer, etc.: the whole of this fourth and the following fifth oracle pertain to Andronicus Comnenus, as appears from a similar oracle which exists regarding his empire; for there, among many other things which are said about him, and which exist in Nicetas book II, these things most especially pertain to the present oracle: "It shall fall upon and harvest the straw, but even you shall be harvested by time." Regarding the first-fruits, etc.: Rutgersius thinks it should be read: "Four months I grant to you, after which you shall see all the first-fruits of your crops consumed by iron." For the past tense is put here for the future: as a little later, "he is snatched" is used for "he shall be snatched." Regarding "You shall be dragged to Hades": without doubt in the ancient codex, for "to Hades," it was written "to the abyss": for he translates: "Depart into the abyss."A The third and first letter duplicated / Shall be divided, which before were conjoined.
ORACLE V (Icon 5)
Confusion
This fourth one running from the north, And a sword and a rose, a man aiming toward the harvest. This very first letter shall cut off the rose: Look upon the letter M. For taking power, so as to mow the grass, He who perseveres will not spare you at the beginning. Look at him: for he begins to reap. Bearing the rose, he has an end in all things. B Because of this, be of good spirit for the future: for in vain He shall be refreshed. But as one cutting a rose, a rose Disturbed in circles. For it carries the third Letter, the hand, and the very sickle.ORACLE VI (Icon 6)
Amputation
The cow bears the fifth and final mark of the bear-nurse, The shape brings both the place and the manner. And you yourself, being modest, shall restrain your dearest friends, Wherefore you shall attain a most noble end. And having alone united to yourself imperial renown, And most bravely leaving behind the power of the dead, For in a short time you shall be happy on account of the empire, Where you have entered, as you appeared to me a friend. For having prime virtues more than others.ORACLE VII (Icon 7)
Division of Members
C Another certain bear nursing her cubs, And all that she is, except that it is adumbrated. And [parhelia] bind it on either side,NOTES
Regarding "The third and first letter duplicated; shall be divided which before were conjoined": it might be better to read "the letter M." As for "Look upon the division of this letter," or "M is the letter, and for it carries the third letter, the hand," or "the second cow." ... As for "And having alone united," etc. ... Regarding "And leaving the power of the dead," it means, "And leaving the empire to the dead one." For it seems to speak of that future best emperor, elected by God, about whom these words of oracle 13 are said: "The dead one already forgotten even to the sight, shall hold the scepter of this queen." D Regarding "For you have prime virtues more than others," I approve this reading more than that of the manuscript codices. Regarding "Parhelia bind it on either side," it refers to a division of the whole power. These are called [parhelia], when two or three suns appear, or rather, images of the sun in a thick cloud and near it after the manner of a mirror. The ancient interpreter translates these two verses thus: "Toward the rising sun, on both sides they bring a part of the crown of the whole empire." Without doubt, therefore, it was written in his codex: "And indeed instead of 'part of the crown' one reads 'also' in the codex."A Bringing in a division of the whole empire, Extending the nature of the motion of times. For it is depicted in the last of the last.
ORACLE VIII (icon 8)
Sanguis. Alas, alas, O unhappy, most wretched city! For you gaze now upon a miserable light. When Kappa shall rule for a long time. For there are slaughters in you and pourings out of blood, And stirred up for civil war, They shall bury an uncountable swarm with the sword, Measured at six or seven thousands. And every lecherous man and one stained with slaughter, B B The adulterer, the plunderer, the unjust, the sodomite, They shall see the final light before their eyes. When the eleventh is constrained, it shall not cease, And the five first-fruits of the monarchy. They shall hiss at the dragon, the slayer of Libya. Carving his fleshless limbs,
ORACLE IX (icon 9)
Gratiarum actio. Having feigned a vulpine friendship, And patiently having bridled your temper, As a very old and gray-haired man of wisdom, You have come doubly to the islands which offer seven tablets. You shall send them all away, broken by one another. And the pourings out, alas, of blood shed! You, in victory, Have opened your hands with thanksgiving, And have received the reward of victory at the end of your scepter. Of the two striking, the third is first. C 12.
ORACULUM X (icone 10)
Potestas. Woe to you, city of seven hills, when the twentieth Letter shall be praised upon your walls. Then near shall be the ruin and perdition Of your magnates, and of those who render unjust judgments. He who has crooked fingers, Which is a sickle of desolation, And blasphemy against the Most High D.
ORACLE XI (icon 11)
Patriarcha. Io. Isaacius, a fainting of blood-slaughter. Io. Gratitudo.