how each thing is done; what armaments should be made against the enemy; how it is possible to move the lines of battle, in what place, and when one must use them. So much, then, for tactics.
B 59. It is the task of architecture to describe the forms of camps and moats, or encampments, how one must enclose them by a moat or palisade, how to apportion the interior space symmetrically, how to make the appropriate thoroughfares, and how to demonstrate the intervals of the greatest camp through its length, and again, by contraction, to the least, when the time for each need arises; and to choose those places which are not easily beset by the enemy, and those which are easily evacuated in withdrawals and marches.
60. Furthermore, it belongs to the art of mechanics to construct the walls of cities or other fortresses C so as to be unconquerable against the machines of the enemy, and to render them impregnable to the diversion of water. Regarding the walls, one must also construct and prepare armaments: such as the so-called mangonels, and toxobolistrae, and all the other weapons of every kind that are used for siege warfare, and others besides that are suitable for attacking walls. So much for architecture.
61. It is the task of astronomy to predict the seasons of the year in which changes of winter and heat occur, or the onsets of rain-storms, or the movements of violent winds, from which armies D often fall into the greatest dangers. It is also its task to divide accurately the parts of the day and night into the appropriate times for attacks and for rest; for when these are not observed, the entire enterprise of the forces has often proved useless and vain in battle. It is for it also to prefigure the outcomes of earthquakes and other signs and portents, and to adapt appearances skillfully for the advantage of our own men. All these things belong to astrology.
62. It is the task of the priestly art to use divine things well and to perform these works unceasingly for the army, piously and in a manner pleasing to God, according to the rule handed down from above to pious Christians, through sacred rites, holy ceremonies, and other prayers and supplications made earnestly toward God, and toward His all-immaculate Mother and Theotokos, and His holy servants. By these, the Divine is appeased, and through the faith of salvation, the souls of the soldiers are made the more robust for undergoing dangers.
63. It is the task of medicine to have cures, and medical knowledge, for all the ulcers that arise from wounds, and for injuries that are caused by stones or missiles or any other weapon. But as for the common diseases that habitually occur—chills, and fevers, and pains, and changes in water, and the locations of places,
and the disorder of food, such as new fruits and the like—the medical art is restorative for all these. 64 Furthermore, the calculations of logistics, the expenditures of soldiers, all that is gathered from spoils or from other sources of revenue, and again where it is spent—in the construction of arms and machinery, and for other needs of each campaign, as is fitting—all these things fall under the explanation and method of logistics.
65 Therefore, such arts are necessary for the construction and preservation of an army, and the masters of these are those who handle them with knowledge.
66 The makers of weapons work hard at the craft of arms; men experienced in letters and figures, at logistics; and you yourself, O general, and the officers appointed under you, at tactics.
67 Architecture is the task of builders and mechanics, who have long been experienced in such exercise. Astronomy is for those who contemplate the celestial bodies and are distinguished by wisdom and knowledge in the calculation of the stars, who dwell upon the canon of Ptolemy and his so-called *Tetrabiblos*, and upon certain other Chaldean observations. Furthermore, they attend to the exposition of the phenomena by Aratus, and the daily and monthly observation of John the Lydian. But as for the matters of genethlialogy that are scattered in those books, being rejected by the Church of God, our empire also drives them out. And these are the matters concerning astronomy.
68 As for the priestly office, pure priests, grave in life and character and sanctified by sacrifices, shall perform the rites, and they too shall offer the end of their own duty to God; just as we, summarizing what we said a little above, consecrate the end of this our imperial command to God, the giver of all good things.
69 Therefore, let such imperial and military laws and patterns, practiced by our empire, be established and guarded for you yourself and for the army and state under your command, O general; and it is necessary that you study with the greatest care and sobriety what is written herein. For you will reap great benefits from...
A this book; for when you have accurately understood the stratagems and ordinances written for your sake, then, if the enemy ever makes use of the same, you will easily be able to devise the counter-stratagems against them.
70. For we have compiled these things into this book for the common good, as far as was possible, partly from the experience of wars, as has been said, and partly from what has been stated by the ancients. We have not been concerned with elegant speech, as we mentioned at the beginning of this treatise, nor with any other overly curious composition, but have used only common and plain words, following most closely the form of speech used by the military.
71. Whatever other matters of importance there may be, as is likely, in every time of war or concerning any other apparatus against any nations, and especially the Saracen race, for whose sake, as I have said before, this book was compiled—even if we have not been able to embrace everything, yet you must conjecture from what has been written, from past experience, and even from the very nature of things, and apply yourself as far as possible to emerging circumstances; for I do not think it possible for me, or anyone else, B to write everything, or to provide for all future contingencies, so as to guard against all things, infinite in number and in the measure of their varying circumstances that may arise at any time.
72. For neither are the stratagems of the enemy attempted by them always in the same way or manner. Hence, no one can infer what will be necessary for use at any given time. Nor are they strategized with a single mind; but the attempt by the enemy being manifold C, the modes of counter-attempt must also be diverse. For human nature is cunning and inscrutable, and is capable of both devising many things and attempting them beyond expectation.
73. Hence, it is fitting and obligatory, O general, that you always apply yourself to prayer to God and keep His commandments, so that through Him you may be enabled to prevail against your enemies D and be saved yourself, along with those under your command, and receive from above salvation and victory in Christ, the true God and King of all, eternal, to whom be glory and power unto the ages. Amen.
APPENDIX TO THE TACTICS OF LEO AUGUSTUS
The following chapters are prefixed to the Zurich Academic Program of the year 1854. According to the Editor, they are of two types: they concern either the military affairs of the ancient Greeks and Macedonians, or the more recent affairs of the Byzantines. The former chapters (30, 34, 41, 42, 53, and 54), although they do not indeed offer much that is entirely new, may nevertheless not uselessly be compared with the accounts of Asclepiodotus, Aelian, and the Byzantine Anonymous. These latter chapters (35, 38, 39, 43, 50), however, comprehend just as briefly and clearly the foundations of early Byzantine warfare, which are read dispersedly and not without difficulty in the Tactics of Maurice, Constantine, and Leo. The Editor further advises that he has always adhered to the writing of the codex and has altered nothing, but has left such things as they are—*daitotatoi, kribantes, dephensores*; who the author is, indeed, and to whom the codex belongs, he remains entirely silent. We have added a Latin translation.
A CAP. XXXII. — Ordinances of the infantry among them [the Greeks].
Each legion of infantry consisted of four thousand and ninety-six armed men and shield-bearers; there were sixteen ranks in a legion, and each rank consisted of two hundred and fifty-six men. Now, what they called the "perfect" army consisted of four legions: it was divided into a right and a left part, and a medium right and a medium left, such that there were sixteen thousand three hundred and eighty-four men. This number was useful among the ancients, since when it is divided into two equal parts, neither part ever ends in a unit. B The infantry formation also had light-armed troops, always half the number of the shield-bearers, namely eight thousand one hundred and ninety-two; they always drew these up separately and by themselves, either a little in front of the shield-bearers, in order to pursue enemies who might perhaps have turned in flight, or on either side, or even behind, as necessity required. The entire army therefore amounted to twenty-four thousand six hundred and seventy-six men. They also arranged the army in another way. For they used to divide the aforementioned sixteen thousand three hundred and eighty-four, whom, as we have said, they called the "perfect" army, into two equal parts, placing eight thousand one hundred and ninety-two on each side, calling them the right wing and the left wing, and naming the front part of the right wing the right head, and the rear part the right tail; they named the parts of the left wing in the same way. C The space between these two wings, where the general also stood, they called the mouth and the navel of the formation. They also placed the eight thousand one hundred and ninety-two light-armed troops separately in that formation in the same way as we have already said. The interval in...
[alt-version omitted]
the transversals between these legions was not more than eight ells.
CHAP. XXXIII.—The formations of the cavalry among them.
The cavalry rarely fought by themselves, for the cavalry was small among the Greeks. But whenever they were drawn up for a cavalry battle, they divided the cataphracts together with the doryphoroi into two legions, the middle right and the middle left, and the so-called light-armed—that is, the javelin-men and archers—into two other legions, the right and the left. They placed these slightly ahead of the cataphracts, by about eight ells. However, the depth of the legions was not more than four ranks: two of cataphracts, as if they were the front-line troops, and B two of the so-called light-armed; these also served as the rearguard. The interval across the middle in these cavalry legions was about twenty ells. As for the length of the ranks, in the cataphracts two men occupied the space of one ell, whereas in the so-called light-armed, each man occupied the space of an ell.
CHAP. XXXIV.—The formations of a mixed army among them.
When a mixed army was composed of infantry, obviously, and cavalry, they would draw up the infantry according to one of the aforementioned methods, and they would place the cavalry either in front of the infantry formation or behind it, as the occasion obviously called for and as necessity pressed, or they would place them at the very C edges of the formation, so that they might make their charges against the enemy more easily, in this way, and also make their withdrawals more easily, and, having already grown weary and being unable to endure the fighting, they might be saved around the rearguard without pain and with no effort. Just as we have said that the aforementioned complete infantry formation consisted of sixteen thousand three hundred and eighty-four hoplites, and the light-armed troops were half of these, that is, eight thousand one hundred and ninety-two, so also they stationed the cavalry at half the number of the light-armed troops, that is, four thousand and ninety-six, so that this mixed formation amounted in total to twenty-eight thousand six hundred and seventy-two. And thus, as I have said, both the Macedonians and the entire Greek nation were armed and drawn up; but about our own, the Roman, armaments and formations, it must be spoken of after a little.
CHAP. XXXV.—How the commanders of the army and the legions under them are named according to the Romans.
The first of all the commanders is the strategos; D then the tourmarchai, who are also called merarchai, after whom come the droungarioi, then the comites, then afterwards the centarchae (these...
are also called hecatontarchae). After these come the lochagoi and decarchae and pentarchae, and in addition to these, those called tetrarchae. Serving under each tagma are also the bandophoroi, the mandatores, the dapolatae, the scribantes, and those said to be "of the touldon"; in addition to these, the so-called minsores (or mensuratores), the physicians, and the bucinatores.
The strategos signifies the one who is in command of the entire army and to whom the full authority B has been entrusted by Our Majesty, and who for this reason has authority over all the commanders. The tourmarches is he who has three droungoi under his command; the droungarios is the commander of one droungos. A droungos would be a body of up to three thousand men; there would be no droungos in excess of three thousand, nor indeed fewer than one thousand, so that the tourmarches would be in command of three thousand men at the minimum, and nine thousand at the most; and the droungarios likewise, at the minimum one thousand, and at the most three thousand.
The comes is the commander of one bandon. C According to the ancients, the term *bandon* strictly referred to what is privately called a *flammulon*, but loosely it was said of an agmen consisting of two hundred to four hundred men, since an agmen of two hundred and more was considered worthy of having its own commander and constituting a bandon. Thus, the comes commanded at a minimum two centarchae. Now, however, among the infantry tagmata, a *bandon* is a body of two hundred and up to four hundred men at the most; among the cavalry, it is fifty men at the minimum, but it can extend up to three hundred and fifty, or four hundred at the most—which is almost the same as what is now called an *allagion*. For an *allagion* is currently termed also the fifty-man body, but the private one proceeds up to one hundred and fifty, while those called the *allagia* of Our Majesty reach up to three hundred and twenty or three hundred and fifty, or at most four hundred, just as today the Thracesian ones are one thousand [and?], and the Charsian ones are three hundred and fifty, and some of the Western tagmata have a composition of up to four hundred men.
A *centarcha* or *centurio* is called he who is in command of one hundred men, just as the *pentecontarcha* is he who is in command of fifty men. D The *lochagos* is the one in command of those who stand according to the depth or thickness of the tagma; this depth consists of sixteen men at most. For a *lochos* is strictly called a series of sixteen men, but loosely a *lochos* is also called [a body] of up to thirty-two; the *lochagos* is also called *protostates* and *promachus*. The *decarchos* is not called that because he commands ten men, but because he is the first among the ten; for when there are ten, the one is in command of the other nine, just as the *pentarchos* does not command five, but is the first among the five, and likewise the tetrarch; moreover, not only is the lochagos called *protostates* and *promachus*, but sometimes it happens that the decarchos is also given that title; when
the depth or thickness of the tagma is not sixteen men, but ten, then indeed the decarchos is called *protostates* and *promachus*, and the *epistates* is the second man standing after either the lochagos or the decarchos; A the *ouragos* is the one at the very end of the tagma's depth. Furthermore, one must know that a *tagma* and a *taxis* are parts of the *parataxis*, from which come the names *tagmatarch* and *taxiarch*. A *tagma* seems to be at minimum two hundred men; for if it were any smaller than this, it would no longer be called a *tagma*, but a section of a *tagma*. *Parataxis* [battle-array] is the term for a multitude already composed of many tagmata. The "mouth" and "navel" of the *parataxis* is its middle place, where the general stands with the standards; the front is the first rank of those called *promachi*, just as the tail is the very last rank of all in each tagma, as we have said. *Contubernium* [company] is the term for the depth or thickness of each tagma. So much for the commanders. Regarding those serving across the tagmata, the *bandophori* are those who carry what are commonly B called *flamula* [pennants], the *mandatores* are those who convey the commanders’ orders to the soldiers, and the *depotati* and *cribantes* are those who walk behind the tagmata, picking up the wounded immediately and carrying them to the physicians. Those who have the entire army's baggage entrusted to them are called *tuldatores*—for the baggage is called *tuldum*. The *procursatores* are those who run ahead before the meeting of the battle and provoke the opponents to engage; *cursatores* are those who go off for plunder and lay waste the enemy's territory; *defensores* are those constantly moving behind the *procursatores*, who receive them as they retreat and fight on their behalf. *Hypercerastai* [super-flankers] are called those standing around the right wing of the battle-array for the purpose C of encircling the enemy; *plagiophylakes* [flank-guards] are, in turn, those standing on the left side of the battle-array to guard against the encircling movements made by the enemy and, as far as they are able, to fight back against them and hold their ground; *mensores* or *mensuratores* [surveyors] are those appointed to run ahead of the army, leveling the roads, searching for forage for the horses and water, and in addition preparing the disposition of the camp and every other service for it.
CAP. XXXVIII. — The armament of infantry according to the Romans.
The armament of the Roman infantry battle-arrays should be thus: the shields of the so-called hoplites D should be square, tapering at the bottom to a narrow point of about six spans, or even triangular and nearly the height of a man just like the square ones, or else round, measuring three and a half spans.
A Let the shields of each part, that is to say the middle, the right, the left, and the rest, have the same color and device. Let their spears be ten cubits long, or eight at the minimum, with points of one and a half spans. The javelins, however, should not be made of wood cut with an ax, but of fresh-cut oak, cornel, or what are called *artzikidia*, or some other such wood. In addition to this, let them wear *lorikia* or *klivania*, and these either iron or horn; if these are not available, let them have *suppara* with cotton and a cowl reaching to the knees, having sleeves to the elbows, with slits around the arms for the passage of the hands; let the sleeves be fastened behind the shoulders with female brooches. They should be girded with *parameria*—that is, swords sharpened on one side—of four spans including the hilt. There should also be *chiropsella*, which are called *manikellia*, and iron *podopsella*, and finally complete helmets with crests on top; let these same crests be also atop the shoulders of the *lorikia* and *klivania*.
B The equipment of those called *peltastai*, however, must be made lighter; for their shields should be round, at most of three spans, or oblong of four spans; their spears should be eight cubits long, and their javelins—or *riptaria*—about one and a third cubits long, certainly no more than twelve spans inclusive of the point. Their breastplates should be chain-mail—that is, *lorikia* and *klivania*—either of iron or of horn, or if these are missing, thick *suppara* made of wool or a cowl, as we said above; in addition to these, [they should have] *parameria* and helmets with an open face.
The armament of the so-called *psiloi* (light-armed soldiers) should be something like this: across their shoulders let them carry quivers, furnished with pouches containing thirty or forty arrows, and they should also have two bowstrings, and wooden tubes containing small arrows and similar pouches; some call these small arrows *menas*. Such arrows are very useful in war because they are sent a very great distance by bows, and because they are invisible to the enemy due to their small size, and for this reason they kill very quickly; furthermore, they are useless to the enemy C because of their lack of skill. Let the same *psiloi* also carry javelins, small round shields, and *parameria* or *tzikouria* (axes) carried in leather sheaths; some of them may also have slings not less than six spans long. Their garments should not reach the ankles, but only down to the knees, and their footwear should be moderately nailed; for these things are useful, especially on marches.
Furthermore, let there be in these infantry units, for every *dekarchia*, one wagon carrying a hand-mill, a double-headed ax, two mattocks, winnowing fans, a hair-cloth, a rush basket, and other things; also an ax, a sickle, and iron caltrops fastened with iron nails through the aforementioned segments so that they may be more easily thrown and D pulled back again; let each wagon also carry, as necessity requires, several bows and arrows, hardtack, ground millet, and whatever else necessary that we have omitted.
CAP. XXXIX. — Equipment of the horsemen according to them.
A Horsemen should be armed in this manner: the cataphracts shall have oblong shields, about four and a half spans in length; lances eight cubits long, having pennons and iron spearheads one span long; and breastplates of chainmail, complete, reaching down to the ankles, and fastened back with straps and rings, or iron or horn *klibania*, or even long *epilorikia* with cotton padding and a cowl, having slits around the arms, as we said above, as well as *epanoklibana* with plumes or tassels worn about the shoulders. Let there be suspended from their same shoulders double-edged swords of at most four spans in length B excluding the hilt, and at least four including the hilt; and let the same men wear at their sides, alongside the two-edged swords, single-edged swords of equal length, which are also called *parameria*. Let them arm their hands with gauntlets and their feet with the so-called *podosellai*, made either of iron, wood, or tanned ox-hide. All are to have around their saddles iron rods and saddle-bags, having in them two or three rations of hardtack or ground millet, as we have spoken about more fully in the twentieth chapter. On their heads, likewise, iron helmets of solid make, adorned with plumes and having these attached above. Let them also carry quivers, each holding thirty or forty arrows; the arrows shall be nine palms in length, and no less; and bows much reduced in power, these also being sixteen palms or at least fifteen, with their cases; and let each one have in the belts of the quivers a file, an awl, knives, glue, and other such necessary things. C Their horses shall be covered with chanfrons, breast-pieces, and cruppers, either of mail or *klibania*, and these either of iron or plaited together from horn. The spear-bearers (*doryphoroi*) are also to be armed with almost the same weapons as the cataphracts, but with lighter and less solid armor, and their horses shall be unarmored because of their charges and subsequent retreats. So much for these. As for the horsemen called light cavalry, each of the javelin-throwers shall carry two or three javelins, about twelve spans long, and in addition an eight-cubit lance and an oblong shield of about four spans, or a circular one of three spans, and in addition to these, helmets D that are open around the sides; the archers shall have quivers and bows reduced in power, as we said above, for the sake of ease of handling and accuracy.
CAP. XLI. — Denominations of army movements.
AFlexio ad lanceam (turning to the spear), flexio ad scutum (turning to the shield), to advance in front, to advance to the flank, epagoge, paragoge, metabole, epistrophe, anastrophe, antiperispasis, exallagmus, hyperphalangisis, hypercerosis, to advance in order, to connect (jungere), diplasiasmus, entaxis, hypotaxis, protaxis, parabole, systole. B
Flexio ad lanceam is called the movement of each man to the right; flexio ad scutum, to the left; to advance in front means that the battle line proceeds while maintaining a suitable length; to the flank means when, due to the narrowness of the places, the right wing advances first, the center follows, and the left comes up behind (for the wing, as we have said, is called the outermost part of the entire battle line). Epagoge is when the phalanx has its file-leaders (lochagoi) or front-rankers, and its rear-rankers in their proper order. C
Metabole is when the soldier turns backward; epistrophe is when the whole battalion turns as one man; anastrophe is when it returns to that prior formation. Antiperispasis is when an unexpected movement is made to deceive the enemies, so that they, having been tricked, yield on the side where they were prevailing; exallagmus is when the front-rankers take the rear, and conversely the rear-rankers become front-rankers. Hyperphalangisis is when the front of the phalanx extends beyond the enemies on both sides; hypercerosis is when it extends only on one side. To advance in order is when the soldiers are directly aligned with one another according to the depth or density of the file, that is, the file-leaders with the middle and the rear-rankers. To connect (jungere) is when they stand directly along the length of the order; for the row of battalions along the length is called a "yoke" (jugum). Diplasiasmus is when two files become one; this is done either according to length or according to depth. Entaxis is when the light-armed troops are stationed mixed among the heavy-armed, man by man; hypotaxis, however, is when the light-armed troops are placed separately behind the heavy-armed; protaxis, when they are placed in front; parabole is when the front of the phalanx is extended more broadly; systole is when it is drawn back into its former state.
CAP. XLII. — Figure of the phalanx.
DQuadrangular phalanx, equilateral phalanx, transverse phalanx, straight phalanx, oblique phalanx, double-fronted phalanx, opposite-fronted phalanx. The quadrangular phalanx is called one that is bounded by four sides, but not equal ones, being an oblong figure; equilateral is one which has equal battalions on its four sides, and is called a square formation; the transverse phalanx is one which has a front much longer than its depth, and makes itself quadrangular in length; which is very useful in battle lines.
A An "upright" phalanx is one that has a thickness much greater than its length, which is useful only in difficult terrain; an "oblique" phalanx is one that fights with one wing, while the rest remain idle. A "bifrontal" phalanx differs from an "opposing" one; for the bifrontal, seen in an upright oblong shape, fights having the battle on its two sides, while the opposing, in a transverse oblong shape, has the battle on each side as well, but not from the sides, rather from the front and the rear.
CHAPTER 43. On the depth or density
of the infantry and cavalry formations, and their length, and how much space each infantryman and cavalryman occupies in the battle line, and on the intervals between the formations, both straight and oblique, where also the shooting of arrows is discussed.The infantry battalions should have a maximum depth of sixteen ranks, and no more, but a minimum of seven; for a thickness beyond sixteen ranks would be harmful because the javelin-throwers, archers, and slingers would be obstructed by the many standing in front of them, and a depth of less than seven is in another way harmful; for it may happen that when the enemy attacks from the front and also from the rear, requiring the phalanx to turn, it would easily be taken by the enemy if it lacked sufficient depth. B When, therefore, the infantry army has twelve thousand men or more, then it is necessary to make the battalions of sixteen ranks; but if the army is smaller, it is permitted to reduce them down to seven. This should be the depth, or density, of the infantry line, but the length is unlimited: for it can be extended or contracted, clearly according to the size of the army. Now, the length that seems most symmetrical in a battle line is three hundred men, and the minimum is two hundred. The maximum depth of cavalry battalions is ten ranks, and the minimum sometimes even four; for a cavalry line that lacks thickness is useless in war, since it is easily broken through by enemies, endures encirclement, and is most easily surrendered to destruction; but it is most useful for taking captives and for despoiling a region most quickly. C When, therefore, the cavalry army amounts to ten thousand, then it is necessary to make the battalions of ten ranks; but if the army is smaller, down to five or at least four, which is also most effective and useful in battle lines, since the archer standing behind the five horsemen, because of those standing in front of him, will be forced to shoot his arrows into the air—and from there it results that they are ineffective—and especially D because he can indeed push the foot-soldiers who stand before him into the battle, but in no way the horsemen. But more will be said about each of these in the forty-sixth chapter. This should be the depth or density of the cavalry battle line, but the length here is also unlimited.
for it will be proportional to the size of the army. Thus, in this case, the length is thought to be at most that of two hundred men, and at the least that of one hundred and twenty. These A are the points regarding the length and depth of both the infantry and cavalry formations.
The space occupying the flanks that both the foot soldier and the horseman are said to hold in formation is, in marching, one fathom—that is to say, four cubits; but when there is an expectation of battle, it is half a fathom, that is, three feet; and in the very moment of engagement, it is a third of a fathom, or two feet: this is also called a *synaspismos* (shield-locking). Only in the formation called the *chelone* (tortoise), which the common people call *syskouton*, does each foot soldier occupy a quarter of a fathom, or one cubit; a proportionate space for both horseman and foot soldier is half a fathom. In a straight line, the foot soldier occupies the space of one fathom because of the releasing of slings and the brandishing of javelins.
The intervals between the infantry formations on the flanks are not more than six fathoms (for a gap of eighteen, which receives cavalry passing through, is here considered B sufficient). In the cavalry, however, it is unlimited, though here too it is proportionate: a gap of thirteen fathoms is considered proper. Only in the formation called the "auxiliary" is it permitted, as will be said in the forty-sixth chapter, to place the intervals on the flanks up to half a bowshot.
Regarding the intervals in a straight line in the formations, one formation shall stand apart from another by two bowshots while marching, and sometimes, at one time, more and at another less; but in time of war, at most one bowshot—rarely will it be less for cavalry, but much less for the infantry. However, in the case of a mixed army, it is even less, especially when, in the formed C posture, the foot soldiers enclose the cavalry in the middle, as will be explained more broadly in the forty-seventh chapter concerning a mixed army and the infantry formations within it. For then the intervals of the infantry formations in a straight line are no more than twenty-eight fathoms.
Those who are called the *prokoursatores* (skirmishers) and their defenders (these would be those who ride out before the formations at the time of battle and provoke the enemy to engagement) will keep a distance of up to two or three miles at most from the rest of the regiments; beyond this, it is not safe. Similarly, the *opisthophylakes* (rear guards) will keep back by two bowshots D of the *tuldos* (baggage train), so that the enemy, shooting arrows at the rear guards from behind, may not strike those who are in the baggage train. For a bowshot is most fittingly reckoned at one hundred and fifty fathoms, or for simple, so-called cubits, one hundred and seventy or at most one hundred and eighty.
Chapter LIII. — What a general should do when besieged.
A A general who suspects that he is going to be besieged by the enemy must, before all else, collect provisions sufficient for the duration of the siege. If, however, a sufficient supply of food is not available, he should send the infirm, the aged, children, and women away to fortified cities and positions that are impervious to the enemy’s stratagems before the enemy arrives; and he should also take care to remove those who are suspect. Then, he should station the most trustworthy men at the city gates. He must take care, however, that the same guards do not always remain in the same places, but if possible, they should be changed every day, or at least every two or three days, for fear of treachery; and especially during winter, moonless, or festive nights, one must keep the guards as secure as possible, for this is, for the most part, the time when plots are hatched. B He should distribute his forces to the weaker parts of the walls, and keep others with himself in order to provide assistance easily to any part that is beginning to give way. Furthermore, he should arrange for those who have fought by night and those who have fought by day to rest in turn, so that the soldiers, through a lack of men, are not forced to move from place to place and thus easily grow weary of the city's defense. Once the siege has begun, even if the besieged happen to be more numerous and more courageous, they should not fight outside the walls, unless a most pressing necessity arises or it is impossible to repel the machines brought up to the walls without going outside. Moreover, they should not fire missiles at the enemy inopportunely; for useless and empty shots only generate contempt among them. Furthermore, he should have trees that are near the walls cut down, and remove all fences, so that the enemy may not hide among them, nor, if they are in need of food, feed upon the fruits of the trees. Let there be custodians for the grain and all the edible goods throughout the city, and indeed for the water itself. C If there is no abundance of water or wells in the city, let the drinking water be stored in vessels and cisterns; for as the siege drags on, the water must be rationed, and it must be guarded with the utmost care so that it is not easily seized by the stronger parties.
Against the machines brought up to the walls by the enemy, one must arm in the following manner: Against the stones hurled by the aid of catapults and siege engines, hang haircloths or the hides of freshly slaughtered oxen from the outer battlements of the wall so that these may the more easily be caught in their folds, or also wood, as a sort of shield. D
A Against the impact of the rams, make ready very thick felt or sacks full of straw or sand. Against what are called tortoises, let there be prepared beams pointed at the end and hardened with very sharp iron; for when these are driven in, they easily overturn them. Let pitch or lead, both boiling, or fire, or even very heavy stones let down by a machine and immediately pulled back up, also be showered upon the tortoises. Against ladders set against the walls or those who rashly attempt to approach them, let millstones tied with cords be placed on the battlements, B or heavy pieces of wood similarly tied to the battlements, but obliquely, and also pitch, oil, and boiling fenugreek, pouring all these over the aforementioned ladders. However, against the wooden towers which are moved toward the walls by the aid of rollers—which the masters of tactics call *mosynes*—it is advantageous to have prepared those devices which discharge that liquid fire which is commonly called "quick" fire, and the so-called *cheirosiphones* [hand-siphons], which Our Majesty has recently invented; and in addition to these, towers raised opposite them out of stone, brick, or timber, and all sorts of material heaped up in the intervening space and promptly set on fire. Furthermore, against the enemy's tunneling, one must plant brass rods in suspicious places, or place shields or bronze vessels of such a kind that their clanging might reveal the tunneling; C it is also necessary to dig a trench as deep as possible before the walls, so that those making the tunnels may be exposed. It is also necessary to counter-mine, and upon meeting them, immediately fill a jar with hair or feathers, set fire to it, and after securely closing the mouth of the jar with copper perforated like a sieve, turn it toward the enemy, and after piercing the bottom of the jar, continuously force air into it as if by a blacksmith's bellows; for the enemy, on account of the sharpness of the stench from the smoke of the hair, will easily be driven away and forget their digging. In addition to this, one must also, through small doors unknown to the many, make unexpected sorties against the enemy's machines when the greatest necessity presses, or oppose the enemy in any other way as the resources dictate and the need requires.
CAP. LIV. — What the general shall do when besieging the enemy.
Before all things, it behooves the general who is besieging to be confirmed D in every way, and, just as Our Majesty has decreed in the twenty-second chapter, to withdraw two miles from the city at most, or at least eight stadia: for the forces of those besieging are always seen as more terrible to the enemy when viewed from a distance, and especially so that that part of the army which has obtained rest may not be disturbed. Soldiers from the bravest are to be stationed as close as possible to the city to withstand sudden incursions of the enemy, especially at mealtime. The army shall be divided into parts, and to each part its own duties shall be assigned, lest all be simultaneously dissipated.